(Data collection by Skylar Banks, Camila Rivas-Garrido, and Edward Koning. When referring to this page, please use the following citation: Koning, E.A., Banks, S. & Rivas-Garrido, C. (2024). The IESPI Database – United States country report. University of Guelph, www.iespi.ca/united-states/.)
Tax-paid pensions
| TP1A | Residence requirement for complete universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal pension) |
There is no universal pension in the United States. The only federal tax-paid pension benefit is the means-tested Supplemental Security Income (Borjas & Hilton 1996) (see TP2).
| TP1B | Residence requirement for access to pro-rated portion of universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal pension) |
There is no universal pension in the United States.
| TP2 | Residence requirement, means-tested supplement |
| 1990-1996 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
| 1997-2023 | 28 (tied to permit requiring 5 years of residence) |
Before a large-scale welfare reform in 1996, the Supplemental Security Income was available to immigrants without any residence requirements. Since then, however, the benefit is exclusively available to citizens, and access to citizenship usually requires five years of residence (Fix & Passel 2002, Singer 2004, United States Government n.d.-a, Zimmerman & Tumlin 1999).
| TP3 | Status requirement for access to tax-paid pension |
| 1990-1996 | 80 (citizens and permanent residents) |
| 1997-2023 | 100 (only citizens) |
Before 1996, all permanent residents were eligible for SSI. The reform in that year restricted the benefit to citizens, with only minimal exceptions (for military personnel, refugees, very elderly recipients, and some long-term residents who were in the country before the reform took place) (Borjas 2002, Potochnick 2016, Sainsbury 2006, Singer 2004, United States Government n.d.-a, Zimmerman & Tumlin 1999).
| TP4 | Export possibilities, universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal pension) |
There is no universal pension in the United States.
Health care
| HC1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-1996 | 0 (no waiting period) |
| 1997-2023 | 100 (tied to permit requiring 5 years of residence) |
Before the 1996 welfare reform, all legal permanent residents had the same access to federal and state medical benefits as native-born citizens, without any residence requirements. Since then, however, all newcomers have been barred from federal means-tested health insurance programs unless they have acquired US citizenship, which normally requires at least five years in the country (Bronchetti 2014, Kehrberg et al. 2022, Ku & Matani 2001, Nam 2012, Ross 2002, Zimmermann & Tumlin 1999).
| HC2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1996 | 80 (citizens and permanent residents) |
| 1997-2023 | 100 (citizens only) |
Health care benefits were available to citizens and permanent residents until the reform of 1996, after which they have only been available to citizens (with some exceptions, most notably refugees who have not yet naturalized) (Kehrberg et al. 2022, Ku & Matani 2001, Nam & Kim 2012, Olsen 2002).
| HC3A | Public health care available to asylum seekers |
| 1990-2012 | 83 (emergency care and urgent care) |
| 2013-2023 | 67 (necessary care, with user fees) |
The Emergency and Medical Treatment and Labor Act of 1986 (EMTALA) requires hospitals that receive Medicare funds to provide emergency care to any individual that requires it, regardless of immigration status or financial means. This includes asylum seekers. Since the passing of the Affordable Care Act in 2012, asylum seekers can obtain subsidized health care insurance (but not federal benefits Medicaid and SCHIP) through the Health Insurance Marketplace (ACP n.d., Greenspon 2008, Office of Refugee Resettlement 2013, 2019).
| HC3B | Public health care available to undocumented migrants |
| 1990-2023 | 33 (emergency care, treatment of communicable diseases, perinatal care) |
As a result of the EMTALA (Emergency Medical Treatment and Labor Act) of 1986, undocumented migrants have the right to receive emergency care, including treatment of communicable diseases and perinatal care (Greenspon 2008).
| HC4A | Accessibility services, translation services |
| 1990-2023 | 67 (translation services occasionally available in some languages) |
There are few federal programs to ensure the accessibility of health care services for people with low proficiency in English. Even though all health care providers who receive federal funding are legally obliged to provide meaningful access to non-English-speaking individuals, there is much flexibility in the state-level interpretation of this requirement, and in many states it amounts to little more than the availability of translated documents (Grubbs et al. 2006, Ku & Matani 2001, Teitelbaum et al. 2012, United States Department of Health and Human Services n.d.).
| HC4B | Accessibility services, other attempts to increase uptake |
| 1990-1999 | 100 (no services) |
| 2000-2023 | 50 (non-mandatory diversity training available) |
Since at least 1999, public health care agencies have offered (non-mandatory) training for the delivery of culturally sensitive health care services. Since then, the importance of cultural competence in the health care sector has been stressed repeatedly by health care authorities (AMA 1999, Anderson et al. 2003, Pan American Health Organization 2000, Sondik 1999).
Contributory pension benefit
| CP1 | Minimum contribution years |
| 1990-2023 | 45-48 (10 years, 1.5 years for migrants from bilateral agreement countries) |
Access to the contributory pension benefit (Old Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance; OASI) requires a minimum work history of at least 10 years. Migrants from countries that have signed relevant bilateral agreements with the United States can count work history in their country of origin in case they have made at least six quarters (or 1.5 years) of contributions in the United States. These countries are Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Trinidad and Tobago, and United Kingdom since at least 1990, Austria since 1991, Finland since 1992, Ireland and Luxembourg since 1993, Greece since 1994, Chile and Korea since 2001, Australia since 2002, Japan since 2005, Denmark since 2008, and Czech Republic and Poland since 2009 (Borjas 2011, Office of Retirement and Disability Policy 2013, SSA n.d.). Scores on this indicator have been weighted to account for the proportion of migrants who can benefit from totalization agreements using data on the inflow of foreign-born by country of birth from the OECD Migration Database.
| CP2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 80 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals) |
Considering the lengthy work history requirements, in practice only citizens, permanent residents, and migrants who can benefit from totalization agreements are able to access the contributory pension benefit in the United States.
| CP3 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-2023 | 24-25 (without restrictions to some, impossible to others, with additional residence or status requirements to most countries) |
The rules regarding the export of the contributory pension benefit vary by country. To a small number of countries (Azerbaijan, Belarus, Cuba, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan), export is impossible. To others (Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and United Kingdom since at least 1990, Netherlands since 1991, Austria since 1992, Finland since 1993, Ireland and Luxembourg since 1994, Greece since 2001, Korea since 2005, Japan since 2006, Czech Republic since 2009, Poland since 2010, Slovak Republic since 2015, Hungary since 2017, Brazil and Uruguay since 2019, and Iceland and Slovenia since 2021), export is unrestricted. For all other countries, export is possible but only if the applicant satisfies additional requirements, such as citizenship or prolonged residence in the United States (SSA 2018). Scores on this indicator have been weighted to account for these differentiated rules using data from the OECD Migration Database on the stock of foreign-born by country of birth.
Contributory unemployment benefits
| CU1 | Minimum contribution weeks |
| 1990-2023 | 50 (52 weeks) |
Contributory unemployment benefits (also known as unemployment insurance) in the United States are the responsibility of state governments. For a long time, all states required one year of work history before applicants were eligible. In recent years, there have been some small deviations (the minimum contribution requirement is now only 3 quarters or 9 months in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Vermont; and 5 quarters or 15 months in Minnesota and Texas) (United States Department of Labor n.d.-a).
| CU2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 75 (citizens and permanent residents) |
In practice, unemployment insurance in the United States is only accessible by citizens and permanent residents. Migrants on a temporary permit either are ineligible to work altogether (e.g. asylum seekers and international students) or lose their right of residence when they fall unemployed (e.g. temporary workers) (United States Department of Labor n.d.-b, SSA 2003, 2015).
| CU3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There are no integration requirements associated with accessing contributory unemployment benefits nor with obtaining the necessary permits to qualify for them (United States Citizenship and Immigration Services n.d., United States Department of Labor n.d.-b).
| CU4 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-2023 | 98 (not possible, except to Canada) |
Residence in the United States is a requirement for accessing unemployment benefits. The only exception is that the benefits can be claimed from Canada (Department of Labor 1974, Government of Canada n.d.). Scores on this indicator have been weighted to account for the proportion of immigrants from Canada using data on the stock of foreign-born by country of birth from the OECD Migration Database.
Housing benefits
| HB1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no residence requirements) |
None of the housing benefits that are offered through the federal department of Housing and Urban Development come with any residence requirements. Newcomers are eligible as soon as they obtain the necessary status (see HB2) (Government Printing Office 1934, Office of the Federal Register 2000, United States Department of Housing and Urban Development n.d.).
| HB2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 80 (citizens and permanent residents) |
Housing benefits are only available to citizens and permanent residents. The only exception is that refugees, who usually only become eligible for permanent residency a year after they settle in the country, can access housing benefits as soon as they are recognized as refugees (Congressional Research Service 2023, Government Printing Office 1934, Office of the Federal Register 2000, United States Department of Housing and Urban Development n.d.).
| HB3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There are no integration requirements associated with accessing federal housing benefits nor with obtaining the necessary permits to qualify for them (Congressional Research Service 2014, 2023, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services n.d.).
| HB4 | Housing services for successful asylum claimants |
| 1990-2024 | 100 (no targeted services available) |
While resettled refugees are eligible for housing support, there is no such support from states or the federal government for successful asylum claimants. The only available support for this group comes from nonprofit organizations (Mercy Housing n.d., Olson 2006).
Social assistance
| SA1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-1996 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
| 1997-2023 | 48 (5 years) |
Before the welfare reform of 1996, only some categories of migrants (in particular sponsored family migrants) faced a residence requirement before being able to access social assistance (called Aid to Families with Dependent Children at the time). The welfare reform, however, imposed a five-year residence requirement on social assistance (since then called Temporary Assistance for Needy Families) for all newcomers (Butz & Kehrberg 2015, Fix & Zimmerman 1994, Kehrberg et al. 2022, Olsen 2002, Page & Larner 1997, Singer 2004).
| SA2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1996 | 60 (citizens, permanent residents, and small number of temporary migrants) |
| 1997-2023 | 80 (citizens and permanent residents) |
The 1996 welfare reform restricted access to citizens and (long-term) permanent residents. Before then, some categories of temporary migrants (e.g. conditional entrants, aliens granted suspension of deportation, and asylees) were eligible for social assistance (Borjas 2003, Fix & Zimmerman 1994, Nam & Kim 2012, Page & Larner 1997, Zimmerman & Tumlin 1999).
| SA3 | Consequences of welfare uptake |
| 1990-1999 | 0 (no consequences) |
| 2000-2022 | 86 (loss of right of residence for all temporary migrants) |
| 2023 | 71 (loss of right of residence for some but not all temporary migrants) |
Since the introduction of the ‘public charge’ clause in the Immigration and Nationality Act in 1999, welfare receipt can be invoked as grounds for deportation, denied re-entry in the country, or refusal of permanent residence status. In 2022, the Biden administration introduced a large number of conditions under which noncitizens are exempt from the public charge ground of inadmissibility (National Immigration Law Center 2014, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services 2023, United States Department of Justice 1999).
| SA4 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There are no integration requirements associated with accessing social assistance or obtaining the necessary permit to qualify for it. Many states require recipients to undertake efforts to improve their standing in the labor market, but immigrants do not face more of such requirements than native-born Americans (United States Citizenship and Immigration Services n.d.).
Active labor market policies
| AL1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no active labor market policies) |
While a flurry of active employment programs have been attempted, by and large the United States have never developed a regime of active labor market policy comparable to those of the other countries under investigation. Indeed, in cross-national comparisons of active labor market policies, the country consistently appears at the very bottom (Bown & Freund 2019, Bradley & Stephens 2007, Crépon & Van den Berg 2016).
| AL2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no active labor market policies) |
See above (AL1).
| AL3A | Availability of language programs |
| 1990-1998 | 71 (available for vulnerable groups only) |
| 1999-2023 | 57 (available to most migrants, but offered unevenly across the country) |
The United States has long offered English immigrant-targeted language programs. They used to be exclusively available to refugees but since 1999 have also become accessible by other migrants. There are, however, widespread concerns about their quality and availability, especially in some parts of the country (Adess et al. 2009, Bloemraad & De Graauw 2012; Bruno 2011; Fix & Zimmerman 1994).
| AL3B | Public funding of language programs |
| 1990-2023 | 20 (fully funded for some, nominal fees for others) |
Some refugee-targeted language programs in the country are offered free of charge. Most other programs, however, require participants to pay nominal fees (Adess et al. 2009, Bloemraad & De Graauw 2012; Bruno 2011; Fix & Zimmerman 1994).
| AL4A | Availability of employment assistance |
| 1990-2023 | 100 (available to select groups, but offered unevenly across the country) |
Since the 1980s, there have been federal programs aimed at improving the employment prospects of refugees. Most of these programs, however, are offered inconsistently across the country, leading some observers to speak of a ‘lottery effect’, by which some refugees enjoy considerable assistance but others nothing at all (Adess et al. 2009, Bruno 2011, Leimsidor 1982, Mathema 2018).
| AL4B | Nature of employment assistance |
| 1990-2023 | 20 (integration training) |
Refugee-targeted employment assistance can consist of intensive services aimed at achieving early employment, including employment trajectory plans that are tailored to the individual (Adess et al. 2009, Bruno 2011, United States Government n.d.-b).
Works cited
- ACP [American College of Physicians] (n.d.). ‘Healthcare Resources for Refugees, Asylees, and Non-Detained Asylum Seekers Living in the US.’ Retrieved from https://www.acponline.org/practice-resources/patient-and-interprofessional-education/healthcare-resources-for-refugees-asylees-and-non-detained-asylum-seekers-living-in-the-us, April 2024.
- Adess, S., Goodman, J., Kysel, I., Pacyniak, G., Polcyn, L., Schau, J., Shum, K., Wala, R. & Waddell, A. (eds.) (2009). Refugee Crisis in America: Iraqis and Their Resettlement Experience. Georgetown University Law Center, Human Rights Institute.
- AMA [American Medical Association] (1999). Cultural Competence Compendium. Chicago: AMA.
- Anderson, L. M., Scrimshaw, S. C., Fullilove, M. T., Fielding, J. E., & Normand, J. (2003). ‘Culturally Competent Healthcare Systems: A Systematic Review.’ American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 24(3), 68-79.
- Bloemraad, I. & De Graauw, E. (2012). ‘Immigrant Integration and Policy in the United States: A Loosely Stitched Patchwork.’ In J. Frideres, J. Biles (eds.), International Perspectives: Integration and Inclusion (pp. 205-234). Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
- Borjas, G. (2002). ‘Welfare Reform and Immigrant Participation in Welfare Programs.’ The International Migration Review, 36(4): 1093-1123.
- Borjas, G. (2003). ‘Welfare Reform, Labour Supply, and Health Insurance in the Immigrant Population.’ Journal of Health Economics, 22: 933-958.
- Borjas, G. (2011). ‘Social Security Eligibility and the Labor Supply of Older Immigrants.’ Industrial and Labour Relations Review, 64(3): 485-501.
- Borjas, G. & Hilton, L. (1996). ‘Immigration and the Welfare State: Immigrant Participation in Means-Tested Entitlement Programs.’ The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 111(2): 575-604.
- Bown, C.P. & Feund, C. (2019). ‘Active Labor Market Policies: Lessons from Other Countries for the United States.’ Working paper, Peterson Institute for International Economics.
- Bradley, D.H., Stephens, J.D. (2007). ‘Employment Performance in OECD Countries.’ Comparative Political Studies, 40(12): 1486-1510.
- Bronchetti, E.T. (2014). ‘Public Insurance Expansions and the Health of Immigrants and Native Children.’ Journal of Public Economics, 120: 205-219.
- Bruno, A. (2011). ‘U.S. Refugee Resettlement Assistance.’ Congressional Research Service, 7-5700.
- Butz, A.M. & Kehrberg, J.E. (2015). ‘Social Distrust and Immigrant Access to Welfare Programs in the American states.’ Politics & Policy, 43(2): 256-286.
- Congressional Research Service (2014). ‘An Overview of the Section 8 Housing Programs: Housing Choice Vouchers and Project-Based Rental Assistance.’ Retrieved from https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20140207_RL32284_c06c87f7a9b055ade32ee0ca1e2bd69c17c89ecb.pdf, August 2023.
- Congressional Research Service (2023). ‘Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Housing Programs.’ Retrieved from https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46462, August 2023.
- Crépon, B. & Van den Berg, G.J. (2016). ‘Active Labor Market Policies.’ IZA Discussion Paper Series, No. 10321.
- Fix, M. & Passel, J. (2002). The Scope and Impact of Welfare Reform’s Immigrant Provisions. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute.
- Fix, M. & Zimmerman, W. (1994). ‘After Arrival: An Overview of Federal Immigrant Policy in the United States.’ In B. Edmonston & J.S. Passel (eds.), Immigration and Ethnicity: The Integration of America’s Newest Arrivals. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute Press.
- Government of Canada (n.d.). ‘EI – Workers and Residents Outside Canada – Eligibility.’ Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/services/benefits/ei/ei-outside-canada/eligibility.html#, August 2023.
- Government Printing Office (1934). 42 US Code chapter 8 – Low-income housing. Washington, DC.
- Greenspon, M. (2008). ‘The Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act and Sources of Funding.’ Annals of Health Law, 17(2), 309-316.
- Grubbs, V., Chen, A.H., Bindman, A.B., Vittinghoff, E. & Fernandez, A. (2006). ‘Effect of Awareness of Language Law on Language Access in the Health Care Setting.’ Journal of General Internal Medicine, 21(7): 683-688.
- Kehrberg, J.E., Butz, A.M. & West, M.L. (2022). ‘From Exclusion to More Exclusion: Immigration and Social Welfare Access in the United States.’ In E.A. Koning (ed.), The Exclusion of Immigrants from Welfare Programs: Cross-National Analysis and Contemporary Developments (pp. 175-194). University of Toronto Press.
- Ku, L. & Matani, S. (2001). ‘Left Out: Immigrants’ Access to Health Care and Insurance.’ Health Affairs, 20(1): 247-256.
- Leimsidor, B. (1982). ‘The Matching Grant Program.’ In Defense of the Alien, 5: 108-111.
- Mathema, S. (2018). ‘What Works. Innovative Approaches to Improving Refugee Integration.’ Retrieved from www.americanprogress.org/issues/immigration/reports/2018/02/28/447283/what-works/, October 2019.
- Mercy Housing (n.d.). Refugee Housing Technical Assistance Program. Denver: Mercy Housing.
- Nam, Y. (2012). ‘Welfare Reform and Older Immigrant Adults’ Medicaid and Health Insurance Coverage: Changes Caused by Chilling Effects of Welfare Reform, Protective Citizenship, or Distinct Effects of Labour Market Condition by Citizenship?’ Journal of Aging and Health, 24(4): 616-640.
- Nam, Y. & Kim, W. (2012). ‘Welfare Reform and Elderly Immigrants’ Naturalization: Access to Public Benefits as an Incentive for Naturalization in the United States.’ International Migration Review, 46(3): 656-679.
- National Immigration Law Center (2014). ‘Federal Guidance on Public Charge. When Is It Safe to Use Public Benefits?’ Los Angeles and Washington, DC: National Immigration Law Center.
- Office of the Federal Register (2000). Code of Federal Regulations 24: Housing and Urban Development. Washington, DC.
- Office of Refugee Resettlement (2013). ‘Expansion of Medicaid Eligibility under the Affordable Care Act and Compliance with ORR Regulations at 45 CFR 400.101.’ Retrieved from https://www.hhs.gov/guidance/sites/default/files/hhs-guidance-documents/ORR-SL-13-10-Expansion-of-Medicaid-Eligibility.pdf, August 2023.
- Office of Refugee Resettlement (2019). ‘Health Insurance.’ Retrieved from https://www.acf.hhs.gov/orr/programs/refugees/health, August 2023.
- Office of Retirement and Disability Policy (2013). ‘Social Security (Old-Age, Survivors and Disability Insurance) Program Description and Legislative History.’ Retrieved from https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/supplement/2013/oasdi.html, July 2024.
- Olsen, G.M. (2002). The Politics of the Welfare State: Canada, Sweden, and the United States. Oxford University Press.
- Olson, L. (2006). At Home with Refugee Housing: Resettlement to Integration. Denver: Mercy Housing.
- Page, S.B. & Larner, M.B. (1997). ‘Introduction to the AFDC Program.’ The Future of Children, 7(1), 20-27.
- Pan American Health Organization (2000). ‘Healthy People 2010.’ https://www.paho.org/hq/dmdocuments/2010/National_Health_Policies-United_States-Healthy_People_2010.pdf, August 2023.
- Potochnik, S. (2016). ‘Reversing Welfare Reform? Immigrant Restoration Efforts and Food Stamp Receipt among Mexican Immigrant Families.’ Social Science Research, 1-12.
- Ross, C. (2002). Immigrants and Health Care. Lexington: Washington and Lee University Library Special Collections and Archives.
- Sainsbury, D. (2006). ‘Immigrants’ Social Rights in Comparative Perspective: Welfare Regimes, Forms of Immigration and Immigration Policy Regimes.’ Journal of European Social Policy, 16(3): 229-244.
- Singer, A. (2004). Welfare Reform and Immigrants. Brookings Institution.
- SSA [Social Security Administration] (2003). ‘United States.’ In Social Security Programs Throughout the World: The Americas (pp. 135-140).
- SSA [Social Security Administration] (2015). ‘United States.’ In Social Security Programs Throughout the World: The Americas (pp. 211-218).
- SSA [Social Security Administration] (2018). ‘Your Payments While You Are Outside the United States.’ Publication no. 05-10137.
- SSA [Social Security Administration] (n.d.). ‘U.S. International Social Security Agreements.’ Retrieved from https://www.ssa.gov/international/agreements_overview.html, July 2024.
- Sondik, E. J. (1999). ‘Healthy People 2000 Progress Review: Educational and Community-based programs.’ Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/healthy_people/hp2000/reviews/education.htm, August 2023.
- Teitelbaum, J., Cartwright-Smith, L. & Rosenbaum, S. (2012). ‘Translating Rights into Access: Language Access and the Affordable Care Act.’ American Journal of Law and Medicine, 38: 348-373.
- U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (2023). ‘Public Charge Resources.’ Retrieved from https://www.uscis.gov/green-card/green-card-processes-and-procedures/public-charge/public-charge-resources, August 2023.
- United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (n.d.). ‘Green Card Eligibility Categories.’ Retrieved from https://www.uscis.gov/green-card/green-card-eligibility-categories, July 2024.
- United States Department of Health and Human Services. (n.d.). ‘Section 1557: Ensuring Meaningful Access for Individuals with Limited English Proficiency.’ Retrieved from https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/1557-fs-lep-508.pdf, August 2023.
- United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (n.d.). ‘Rental assistance.’ Retrieved from www.hud.gov/topics/rental_assistance, October 2019.
- United States Department of Justice (1999). ‘Field Guidance on Deportability and Inadmissibility on Public Charge Grounds.’ Federal Register, 64(101): 28689-28693.
- United States Department of Labor (1974). ‘Unemployment Insurance Program Letter no. 1276’, July 22, 1974. Retrieved from https://oui.doleta.gov/dmstree/uipl/uipl_pre75/uipl_1276.htm, October 2019.
- United States Department of Labor (n.d.-a). ‘State Law Information.’ Retrieved from https://oui.doleta.gov/unemploy/statelaws.asp, April 2024.
- United States Department of Labor (n.d.-b). ‘‘State Unemployment Insurance Benefits.’ Retrieved from https://oui.doleta.gov/unemploy/uifactsheet.asp, October 2019.
- United States Government (n.d.-a). ‘What is Supplemental Security Income (SSI)?’ Retrieved from https://www.benefits.gov/benefit/4412#:~:text=SSI%20provides%20monthly%20payments%20to,by%20U.S.%20Treasury%20general%20funds, July 2024.
- United States Government (n.d.-b). ‘Refugee and Entrant Assistance – Targeted Assistance.’ Retrieved from https://www.benefits.gov/benefit/873, August 2023.
- Zimmerman, W. & Tumlin, K.C. (1999). Patchwork Policies: State Assistance for Immigrants under Welfare Reform. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute.