(Data collection by Gloria Novovic, Camila Rivas-Garrido, Angela Sofo, and Edward Koning. When referring to this page, please use the following citation: Koning, E.A., Novovic, G., Rivas-Garrido, C., & Sofo, A. (2024). The IESPI Database – Italy country report. University of Guelph, www.iespi.ca/italy/.)
Tax-paid pensions
| TP1A | Residence requirement for complete universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal public pension) |
There is no universal public pension program in Italy. The only fully tax-paid pension benefit (called the pensione sociale before 1996 and the assegno sociale since then) is means-tested.
| TP1B | Residence requirement for access to pro-rated portion of universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal public pension) |
See above.
| TP2 | Residence requirement, means-tested supplement |
| 1990-1995 | 53 (tied to permit demanding 10 years of residence) |
| 1996-2008 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
| 2009-2023 | 50 (10 years residence requirement) |
Before 2009, there was no residence requirement associated with accessing the means-tested public pension. However, the pensione social was only available to Italian citizens and therefore was effectively inaccessible to newcomers in their first years, after which they would be eligible for naturalization. Since 2009, the benefit has been available only to those with at least 10 years of residence in Italy (INPS 2016, OECD 2021, Parlamento Italiano 1969, 1998, 2008).
| TP3 | Status requirement for access to tax-paid pension |
| 1990-1995 | 100 (only citizens) |
| 1996-2023 | 70 (citizens, permanent residents, and privileged nationals) |
Only Italian citizens were eligible for the pensione sociale. The assegno sociale, on the other hand, is available to all citizens, EU citizens, and permanent residents, as long as they meet the other eligibility requirements (INPS 2016, OECD 2021, Parlamento Italiano 1969).
| TP4 | Export possibilities, universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal public pension) |
There is no universal public pension in Italy (see above).
Health care
| HC1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
There is no waiting period before new arrivals can access the health care system: access begins as soon as one is registered with the National Health Service (Luzi et al. 2013, Ministero della Salute n.d., Parlamento Italiano 1989, 1998)
| HC2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 20 (all registered residents) |
All legal residents that have the right and intention to stay in Italy for more than 3 months are eligible to access public health care (De Luca et al. 2013, Galli et al. 2014, Parlamento Italiano 1998).
| HC3A | Public health care available to asylum seekers |
| 1990-2000 | 33 (included in basic system) |
| 2001-2023 | 17 (exemption from user fees many native-born citizens need to pay) |
Asylum seekers have access to the public health care system as soon as their asylum claim has been registered. Since 2000, they have been treated the same way as unemployed Italians, which means they can receive exemption from paying user fees that working Italian citizens are required to pay (ASGI 2023a, Marchetti et al. 2023, Ministero della Sanità 2000, UNHCR n.d.).
| HC3B | Public health care available to undocumented migrants |
| 1990-1998 | 100 (none) |
| 1999-2023 | 17 (essential care and immediate care) |
Undocumented migrants used to be excluded from public health services altogether, but a 1998 reform granted them access to essential care and immediate care, including continuous care that is considered essential by medical professionals (Cuadra 2010, 2011, Devillanova 2008, Luzi et al. 2013, Ministero della Salute n.d.).
| HC4A | Accessibility services, translation services |
| 1990-2023 | 100 (nothing available) |
There are no public translation services in Italian health sector. Even translated documents are very rare. Immigrants with low language proficiency will have to rely on professional interpreters or, more commonly, family and friends (Falla et al. 2017, Gil-Salmeron et al. 2021, Nikitina & Montenovo 2023).
| HC4B | Accessibility services, other attempts to increase uptake |
| 1990-2023 | 100 (no services) |
There is little attempt to introduce cultural sensitivity in the delivery of health care. Indeed, several studies criticize Italian health care for this reason (Busetta et al. 2018, De Luca et al. 2013, Devillanova 2016, Di Napoli et al. 2022, Gil-Salmeron et al. 2021).
Contributory pension benefit
| CP1 | Minimum contribution years |
| 1990-1995 | 64-66 (20 years, aggregation possible for migrants from EEA countries and bilateral agreement countries) |
| 1996-2023 | 8-23 (5 years, aggregation possible for migrants from EEA countries and bilateral agreement countries) |
Before 1996, Italy’s contributory pension system determined benefit levels on the most recent years of work history and required a minimum of 20 years of contributions. Since then, it is being phased out and replaced by a system that determines benefit levels on the entire work history. A partial benefit from this new pension program can become available after only 5 years of contributions Migrants from EEA countries and countries with which Italy has signed bilateral social security agreements (Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Cape Verde, Former Yugoslavia, Tunisia, Uruguay, and USA since at least 1990; Venezuela since 1992; and Israel and Turkey since 2016) can benefit from totalization arrangements and are therefore not negatively affected by these minimum contribution arrangements (Galli et al. 2014, INPS n.d.-a, n.d.-b). Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the proportion of migrants who can benefit from aggregation using data on the inflow of foreign-born from the OECD Immigration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
| CP2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1995 | 80 (citizens, permanent residents, and privileged nationals) |
| 1996-2023 | 40 (citizens, permanent residents, long-term work permit holders, privileged nationals) |
All residents who work in Italy automatically build up entitlement to a contributory pension. Even seasonal workers are technically included as a result of the immigration reform of 1998, but in practice the contributory requirements (especially those in place until 1995) have made it impossible for migrants with short-term permits to build up eligibility (Galli et al. 2014, Parlamento Italiano 1998).
| CP3 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (export possible without restrictions) |
The contributory pension can be claimed from any country in the world. The 2002 Bossi-Fini law made it impossible for emigrants to countries with which Italy has no social security agreements to receive a refund of the contributions paid upon leaving the country, but they are still eligible for the pension benefit when they reach retirement age (INPS n.d.-c, Ministero del lavoro e delle politiche sociale n.d.-a, Parlamento Italiano 2002).
Contributory unemployment benefits
| CU1 | Minimum contribution weeks |
| 1990-2015 | 16-45 (52 weeks, EU nationals can aggregate) |
| 2016-2023 | 8-9 (13 weeks, EU nationals can aggregate) |
Italy’s contributory unemployment benefit, indennità di disoccupazione ordinaria, required a minimum of 52 weeks of contributions before one would be able to draw from it in case of unemployment. This program was replaced in 2015 by the NASpI (nuova prestazione di assicurazione sociale per l’impiego). The NASPI only requires a minimum of 13 weeks of contributions, but is only paid out for half of the number of weeks in a recipient’s most recent contribution history (Corsini 2011, INPS n.d.-d, Ministero del lavoro e delle politiche sociali n.d.-b, Rosolia & Sestito 2012). Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the proportion of EU migrants (coding them as facing no minimum contribution requirement) according to data on the inflow of foreigners by country of origin from the OECD Immigration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
| CU2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2015 | 0 (all legal residents) |
| 2016-2023 | 38 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, long-term work permit holders) |
Before 2015, all legal residents were eligible to participate in the contributory unemployment benefit schemes except for seasonal workers and international students. A reform in that year, however, restricted access to permanent residents and holders of long-term work permits (Galli et al. 2014; Parlamento Italiano 2015).
| CU3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2012 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
| 2013-2023 | 60 (tied to permit demanding integration requirements for some migrants) |
There are no direct integration requirements associated with accessing unemployment benefits in Italy. However, since 2012 any non-EU migrant who does not arrive as recipient of international protection or as family migrant is required to successfully participate in an integration program in order to renew their permit (and therefore maintain access to unemployment benefits) (Campomori & Caponio 2016, Cuttita 2016, European Commission n.d.).
| CU4 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-2023 | 88-97 (up to three months within EEA, not possible elsewhere) |
As per EEC regulation no. 1408/71 and EC regulation 883/2004, recipients of Italian unemployment benefits can retain their benefit when searching for a job in a member state of the EEA for a period of up to 3 months (Galli et al. 2014, INPS 2017, De Wispelaere et al. 2020). Scores on this indicator are weighted using data on stock of foreign-born from the OECD Migration Database.
Housing benefits
| HB1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-1998 | 0 (no residence requirements) |
| 1999-2021 | 48 (five years) |
| 2022-2023 | 0 (no residence requirements) |
The 1990 Martelli law established the right to housing for foreigners in Italy, although it mostly focused on temporary solutions for a large inflow of newcomers. The 1998 Turco-Napolitano law formally integrated immigrants into Italian housing programs. While the law did not specify any residence requirements, many local authorities did – for example, the province of Lombardy established a requirement of at least 5 years of residence or work history in the province. A 2008 law established that immigrants would only be eligibly for the full slate of housing support after having spent at least 10 years in the country or 5 years in the same province. In 2021, the Constitutional Court of Italy determined that provinces were no longer allowed to use length of residence as one of the eligibility criteria for housing support (ASGI 2023b, Parlamento Italiano 1990, 1998, 2008, Pompei & Cutini 2009, Regione Lombardia 2013).
| HB2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2002 | 10 (all legal residents) |
| 2003-2023 | 30 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, some categories of temporary migrants) |
Housing benefits were available to all legal migrants until the passing of the 2002 Bossi-Fini law, which required at least a residence permit of 2 years (Parlamento Italiano 2002, Pompei & Cutini 2009).
| HB3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2012 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
| 2013-2023 | 60 (tied to permit demanding integration requirements for some migrants) |
There are no integration requirements directly associated with accessing housing benefits in Italy. However, since 2012 any non-EU migrant who does not arrive as recipient of international protection or as family migrant is required to successfully participate in an integration program in order to renew their permit (and therefore maintain access to housing benefits) (Campomori & Caponio 2016, Cuttita 2016, European Commission n.d.).
| HB4 | Housing services for successful asylum claimants |
| 1990-2023 | 100 (no targeted services available) |
There is no immigrant-targeted housing assistance or other form of privileged access to housing and housing benefits for immigrants. While Italian governments have repeatedly identified the need to improve the housing situation of refugees, there are no concrete targeted services. Once successful asylum seekers and international protection holders have to leave initial reception facilities, they have to navigate the housing system the same way as Italian citizens (ASGI 2023b).
Social assistance
| SA1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-1998 | 34-41 (tied to permit demanding 5 years, except for EU nationals) |
| 1999-2000 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
| 2001-2004 | 43-48 (tied to permit demanding 5 years, except for EU nationals) |
| 2005-2008 | 18-44 (tied to permit demanding 5 years, three months for EU nationals) |
| 2009-2016 | 1 (no residence for TCNs, three months for EU nationals) |
| 2017-2019 | 13-14 (2 years, three months for EU nationals) |
| 2020-2023 | 64-70 (10 years, three months for EU nationals) |
Before 2016, there were no genuine social assistance benefits at the national level (apart from the means-tested pension, see TP2), and instead regional authorities were tasked with providing such benefits to individuals in need. Before 1998, many regional authorities demanded long-term residence or (EU) citizenship as one of the eligibility requirements. A law in 1998, however, explicitly equated residents with a permit of at least one year with citizens, thereby removing any residence requirements. A 2000 reform once again introduced the requirement of long-term residence, which in practice amounted to 5 years. This requirement was deemed unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court in 2008. In 2016, Italy introduced a national social assistance scheme called the Sostegno per l’Inclusione Attiva, which came with a residence requirement of 2 years. This was replaced by the Reddito d’inclusione in 2018, which demanded the same length of residence. A new reform in 2019 introduced the Reddito di cittadinanza, which requires as much as 10 years of residence in the country. As per EU law, EU nationals are exempted from these residence requirements. Since the introduction of EU directive 2004/38, they can be refused social assistance during their first 3 months in the country on the basis that they would constitute an unreasonable burden on the system (Chiaromonte 2020, Galli et al. 2014, Ministero del Lavoro e delle politiche sociali n.d.-c, n.d.-d, n.d.-e, Kazepov 2015, Saraceno 2006). Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the differential rules for EU nationals using data on the inflow of foreign individuals from the OECD Immigration Database.
| SA2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1998 | 70 (citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents) |
| 1999-2000 | 20 (all registered residents) |
| 2001-2008 | 70 (citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents) |
| 2009-2019 | 20 (all registered residents) |
| 2020-2023 | 70 (citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents) |
As a result of the multiple legislative changes described above (SA1), social assistance has only been available to citizens, EU nationals and permanent residents before 1999, between 2001 and 2008, and since 2020. It was available to anyone with a permit of at least one year during the time periods in between (Chiaromonte 2020, Galli et al. 2014, Ministero del Lavoro e delle politiche sociali n.d.-c, n.d.-d, n.d.-e, Kazepov 2015).
| SA3 | Consequences of welfare uptake |
| 1990-1992 | 0 (no consequences) |
| 1993-2023 | 14 (delayed access to PR or citizenship) |
There are no direct formal consequences of taking up social assistance for (future) residence status in Italy. However, since 1992 a stable income over the last three years is a requirement for accessing citizenship, and in most cases welfare uptake is a reason to deny requests for naturalization on that basis (Parlamento Italiano 1992).
| SA4 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2012 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
| 2013-2023 | 60 (tied to permit demanding integration requirements for some migrants) |
There are no direct integration requirements associated with accessing social assistance benefits in Italy. However, since 2012 any non-EU migrant who does not arrive as recipient of international protection or as family migrant is required to successfully participate in an integration program in order to renew their permit (and therefore maintain access to social assistance benefits) (Campomori & Caponio 2016, Cuttita 2016, European Commission n.d.).
Active labor market policies
| AL1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no residence requirements) |
The 1990 Martelli law and the 1998 Turco-Napolitano law specified that foreigners with legal work permits have the right to register as job seekers and as such participate in (most) active labor market programs (OECD 2014, Parlamento Italiano 1990, 1998).
| AL2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 30 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, some categories of temporary migrants) |
All foreigners who are legally entitled to work in Italy are eligible to participate in employment programs (OECD 2014, Parlamento Italiano 1990, 1998).
| AL3A | Availability of language programs |
| 1990-1997 | -8 (no publicly funded programs available) |
| 1998-2012 | 14 (available for any immigrant) |
| 2013-2018 | 29 (available for all permanent residents and some temporary residents) |
| 2019-2023 | 43 (available at least for all immigrants required to take them) |
Free language instruction for immigrants was introduced in 1997. Since a reform in 2012, these courses have only been offered to immigrants who are required to integrate (new arrivals from outside the EU, except family migrants and asylum migrants) and asylum seekers and recognized refugees in reception centers. A 2018 reform cut these services for the latter group as well (Bianco & Cobo 2019, Caponio et al. 2015, Parlamento Italiano 2018).
| AL3B | Public funding of language programs |
| 1990-1997 | 80 (no publicly funded language programs, but no requirement to learn language for benefit receipt) |
| 1998-2023 | 20 (fully funded for some, nominal fees for others) |
Language instruction for immigrants is heavily publicly funded, but some migrants are required to pay nominal fees (Bianco & Cobo 2019, Caponio et al. 2015, Parlamento Italiano 2018).
| AL4A | Availability of employment assistance |
| 1990-2011 | -8 (no targeted programs available) |
| 2012 | 67 (available to vulnerable groups only) |
| 2013-2023 | 33 (available to all immigrants required to make use of it) |
The first public integration programs were rolled out as a result of the 1998 Turco-Napolitano law. Since 2011, Italy has offered a range of immigrant-targeted employment programs for humanitarian migrants. Since 2012, all immigrants who are required to satisfy integration requirements have access to public integration programs (Cuttita 2016, European Commission n.d., Parlamento Italiano 1998, OECD 2014).
| AL4B | Nature of employment assistance |
| 1990-1998 | 100 (nothing available) |
| 1999-2011 | 80 (programs combating discrimination on the labor market) |
| 2012-2023 | 20 (integration training) |
The first integration programs mostly consisted of measures to combat discrimination on the labor market. The programs since the 2010s have consisted of more active integration training (Cuttita 2016, European Commission n.d., Parlamento Italiano 1998, OECD 2014).
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