(Data collection by Yuriko Cowper-Smith, Holly Jones, and Edward Koning. When referring to this page, please use the following citation: Koning, E.A., Cowper-Smith, Y. & Jones, H. (2024). The IESPI Database – France country report. University of Guelph, www.iespi.ca/france/.)
Tax-paid pensions
| TP1A | Residence requirement for complete universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal public pension) |
There is no universal public pension in France.
| TP1B | Residence requirement for access to pro-rated portion of universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal public pension) |
There is no universal public pension in France.
| TP2 | Residence requirement, means-tested supplement |
| 1990-2023 | 23-34 (10 years, except for nationals from EEA/Switzerland, stateless people, and citizens from bilateral agreement countries) |
Before 2006, France offered a number of different means-tested pension supplements, which all came with a residence requirement of at least 10 years. These benefits were replaced by a single program in 2006, the Allocation de solidarité aux personnes agées, which also requires 10 years’ residence (Bolderson & Gains 1993, Walraet & Mahieu 2007). Citizens of member states from the EU, EEA, and Switzerland, as well as Algeria, Benin, Cape Verde, Congo, Gabon, Israel, Madagascar, Mali, Monaco, Senegal, Togo and Turkey (since at least 1990), as well as Andorra (since 2004), Tunisia (since 2008), and Morocco (since 2012) can count years of residence in their country of origin and therefore are de facto exempt from a residence requirement (Service-Public, n.d.-a, Cleiss, n.d.-a). Scores on this indicator have been weighted to account for the proportion of migrants who do not face residence requirements, using data from the OECD Migration Database on the inflow of foreign nationals by country of origin. Extrapolation and interpolation used for missing data.
| TP3 | Status requirement for access to tax-paid pension |
| 1990-1998 | 90 (citizens and privileged nationals) |
| 1999-2023 | 70 (citizens, privileged nationals, and permanent residents) |
Before 1998, only French nationals and privileged nationals (EU citizens and citizens of countries that had reached bilateral agreements with France) could access the means-tested pension supplement. Since a reform in May 1998, however, the benefit has been available to all permanent residents as long as they meet the residence requirement (Conseil d’orientation des retraites 2006, Kondo 2001).
| TP4 | Export possibilities, universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal pension program) |
There is no universal public pension in France.
Health care
| HC1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-1993 | 55 (3 years) |
| 1994-1999 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
| 2000-2023 | 5 (3 months) |
The French health care system maintained a requirement of 3 years of residence until that requirement was abolished in 1993. In 2000, a much shorter residence requirement of 3 months was introduced (André & Azzedine 2016, Carde 2009, Sargent & Kotobi 2017).
| HC2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1993 | 0 (all residents) |
| 1994-2023 | 10 (all legal residents) |
Before 1993, all residents regardless of legal status were able to access health care. Since then, adult undocumented migrants have been explicitly barred from the health care system (André & Azzedine 2016, Carde 2009).
| HC3A | Public health care available to asylum seekers |
| 1990-1999 | 83 (emergency care and urgent care) |
| 2000-2023 | 33 (included in basic system) |
Before 2000, asylum seekers could only access emergency care and urgent care. Since then, they are covered by the same system as native-born residents after three months of residence in the country as a function of the introduction of the Couverture Medicale Universelle (CMU) in 1999, and the Protection Universelle Maladie (PUMA) in 2016 (Carde 2009, Cuadra 2011, Exchanges 2008, Fine 2019, Forum Réfugiés 2023a, Frydryszak & Macherey 2016).
| HC3B | Public health care available to undocumented migrants |
| 1990-1993 | 0 (included in regular system) |
| 1994-1999 | 50 (emergency care) |
| 2000-2023 | 17 (essential care and immediate care) |
Before 1993, undocumented migrants were included in the basic health care system. A reform in that year, however, excluded them explicitly, and as a result undocumented migrants were only able to access emergency care. The introduction of a specific health care program for low-income undocumented migrants, the Aide Medicale Etat in 1999, however, gave undocumented migrants access to all basic health care services (André & Azzedine 2016, Carde 2009, Frydryszak & Machery 2016, Gray & Van Ginneken 2015).
| HC4A | Accessibility services, translation services |
| 1990-2023 | 50 (translation services, but only partially funded) |
Translation services in the medical sector have existed since at least the 1980s, but they have been offered by individual hospitals and non-governmental organizations. As a result, the services are far from universally available and are not always freely accessible (Department of Health 2018, ISM Interprétariat, n.d.).
| HC4B | Accessibility services, other attempts to increase uptake |
| 1990-2023 | 100 (no services) |
Public authorities in France have undertaken little effort to deliver culturally sensitive health care. Doing so is seen as inconsistent with the Republic ideals of leaving cultural matters to the private sphere (Carballeira Carrera et al. 2020, Department of Health 2018).
Contributory pension benefit
| CP1 | Minimum contribution years |
| 1990-2023 | 19-27 (10 years, but aggregation possible for migrants from EU/EEA/Switzerland and bilateral agreement countries) |
Access to (some level of benefit from) the contributory pension program requires at least 10 years of contributions. However, aggregation is possible for migrants from the EU/EEA/Switzerland and countries with which France has struck bilateral social security agreements (in addition to the countries mentioned under indicator TP2, these are Côte d’Ivoire, Mauritania, Niger, and the United States since at least 1990, Cameroon since 1993, the Philippines since 1995, North Macedonia since 1996, Chile since 2002, Bosnia and Montenegro since 2004, Japan and South Korea since 2008, India since 2012, Argentina since 2013, Brazil since 2014, Uruguay since 2015 and Canada since 2018) (Brickenstein 2015, Cleiss n.d.-b, OECD 2021). Scores on this indicator have been weighted to account for the proportion of migrants who can benefit from aggregation arrangements, using data from the OECD Migration Database on the inflow of foreign nationals by country of origin. Extrapolation and interpolation used for missing data.
| CP2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 80 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals) |
There are no formal status requirements for accessing the contributory pension program. Given the lengthy contribution requirements (see CP1), however, in practice only citizens, permanent residents, and those who can benefit from aggregation agreements can access the program (Cleiss n.d.-b, Rallu 2017).
| CP3 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (export possible without restrictions) |
Export of built-up entitlement to the contributory pension program is possible without restrictions (L’assurance retraite n.d., Bolderson & Gains 1993, Holzmann et al. 2005).
Contributory unemployment benefits
| CU1 | Minimum contribution weeks |
| 1990-1993 | -8 (no contributory unemployment benefit) |
| 1994-2006 | 13-15 (4 months, EU migrants can aggregate) |
| 2007-2009 | 18-19 (6 months, EU migrants can aggregate) |
| 2010-2021 | 11-13 (4 months, EU migrants can aggregate) |
| 2022-2023 | 20 (6 months, EU migrants can aggregate) |
Before 1992, the only unemployment benefits in France were means-tested and not contributory (Bolderson & Gains). Since the creation of a contributory program in 1992, the minimum contribution requirements have changed somewhat: they were initially 4 months, increased to 6 months in 2006, lowered back to 4 months in 2009, and increased again to 6 months in 2021. EU nationals can count work history in their country of origin in determining eligibility (Dares 2012, Holzmann & Pouget 2010, Mes Allocs 2024, Palier 2004). Scores are weighted here to account for the proportion of EU migrants (coding them as facing no minimum contribution requirement) using data on the inflow of foreigners by country of origin from the OECD migration database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
| CU2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1993 | -8 (no contributory unemployment benefit) |
| 1994-2023 | 38 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, long-term work permit holders) |
All residents who have access to the labor market are eligible for contributory unemployment benefits as long as they meet the contribution requirements. Since 1991, asylum seekers in France have been barred from the labor market (although exceptions are made in case the determination process takes unusually long through no fault of the applicant) and are as such ineligible (Exchanges 2008, Forum Réfugiés 2023b, Palier 2004, Unédic 2024).
| CU3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-1993 | -8 (no contributory unemployment benefit) |
| 1994-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There have never been integration requirements associated with accessing contributory unemployment benefits.
| CU4 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-1993 | -8 (no contributory unemployment benefit) |
| 1994-2023 | 82-92 (export possible for three months within EEA, not possible elsewhere) |
As per EEC regulation no. 1408/71 and EC regulation no. 883/2004, unemployment insurance benefits can be exported for a period of three months to any state in the European Economic Area in case the recipient is staying there for job-seeking purposes. The three-month period cannot be extended (Cleiss n.d.-c, n.d.-d, Pacolet & De Wispelaere 2014, De Wispelaere et al. 2022). Scores on this indicator are weighted using data on stock of foreign-born from the OECD Migration Database.
Housing benefits
| HB1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990 | -8 (no housing benefits) |
| 1991-2023 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
While the right to housing has been recognized in France since the 1982 Quilliot Act, there have not been central housing benefits since the introduction of the Fonds Solidarité de Logement with the Besson Act of May 1990. This act explicitly prohibits residence requirements for accessing housing benefits, and this prohibition has not changed in subsequent amendments to the law (Loi 90-449 du 31 mai 1990 visant à la mise en oeuvre du droit au logement, Article 6-1). Nevertheless, some departments offer additional housing assistance benefits that do come with residence requirements (CAF 2022, City of Paris n.d., Lévy-Vroelant 2015).
| HB2 | Status requirements |
| 1990 | -8 (no housing benefits) |
| 1991-2007 | 10 (all legal residents) |
| 2008-2013 | 30 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, some categories of temporary migrants) |
| 2014-2023 | 10 (all legal residents) |
Social housing and housing assistance have been intended for all legal residents of France ever since the adoption of the 1990 Besson Act. A 2007 reform excluded some categories of temporary migrants, such as international students, but this restriction was lifted again in 2013 (CAF 2022, Huddleston et al. 2015, Wong & Goldblum 2016).
| HB3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There have never been any integration requirements attached to accessing housing benefits in France.
| HB4 | Housing services for successful asylum claimants |
| 1990-1991 | 100 (no targeted services available) |
| 1992-2023 | 20 (temporary housing guaranteed) |
Since 1991, France reserves specific units, so-called ‘centres provisoires d’hébergement’, for recognized refugees, who are able to stay there for 9 months (with 3-month extensions possible if necessary) after their application for asylum has been successful (Insertion Refugiés n.d., Lévy-Vroelant 2015, UNAFO 2016).
Social assistance
| SA1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2003 | 22-26 (3 years, except for EU migrants) |
| 2004 | 40 (5 years, except for EU migrants) |
| 2005-2023 | 31-39 (5 years, but accessible after 3 months by EU migrants) |
Non-citizens cannot access French social assistance benefits during their first years in the country. The residence requirement was 3 years until 2003, when it was increased to 5 years. EU nationals are exempted from this requirement, but since the introduction of EU directive 2004/38 they can only access social assistance after 3 months of stable residence in the country (Allwood & Wadia 2010, Bergmann 1996, Kondo 2001, Paraschivescu 2013, Service-Public n.d.-b).
| SA2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2009 | 30 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, some categories of temporary migrants) |
| 2010-2023 | 70 (citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents) |
The social assistance benefit Revenu Minimum d’Insertion (RMI), created in 1988, was available to all legal residents who could meet the residence requirements. A major overhaul of the social assistance system in 2009, however, created a new social assistance benefit, the Revenu de Solidarité Active (RSA), which is in practice inaccessible to temporary migrants (Kondo 2001, Legros 2015, Paraschivescu 2013, Service-Public n.d.-b, UNAFO 2016, Vlandas 2012).
| SA3 | Consequences of welfare uptake |
| 1990-2009 | 43 (non-renewal of temporary permit) |
| 2010-2023 | 14 (delayed access to PR or citizenship) |
Under the system of RMI, temporary residents could not renew their permit in cases where they were drawing social assistance. For the RSA benefit, however, only migrants with a long-term residence permit are eligible, and therefore this consequence was no longer possible. However, naturalization does require evidence of ‘stable and sufficient resources’, and as such welfare reliance can lead to rejection of citizenship applications (Bergmann 1996, Kondo 2001, Service-Public n.d.-c).
| SA4 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There are no integration requirements associated with accessing social assistance.
Active labor market policies
| AL1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2008 | -8 (no active labor market policies) |
| 2009-2023 | 0 (no residence requirements) |
France did not offer much in terms of specific active labor market policies until 2008, when it created the Pôle employ, an agency aimed at facilitating the entry of the unemployed in the labor market. There is no residence requirement associated with accessing the services this agency provides – indeed, new immigrants are invited to contact it upon arrival for career counselling, information services, and training opportunities (Schulte et al. 2018, Pôle emploi n.d.).
| AL2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2008 | -8 (no active labor market policies) |
| 2009-2023 | 10 (all legal residents) |
All legal residents can register with Pôle emploi (Pôle emploi n.d.).
| AL3A | Availability of language programs |
| 1990-1995 | -8 (no publicly funded programs available) |
| 1996-2005 | 57 (available to most migrants, but offered unevenly across the country) |
| 2006-2023 | 14 (available for any immigrant) |
The first language programs targeting immigrants in France were rolled out in some departments as early as 1995. However, these courses have only been offered across the country as of 2005, when French integration policy took on a more centralized and mandatory character (Guibentif 2004, EMN 2012, Ministry of the Interior, 2022).
| AL3B | Public funding of language programs |
| 1990-1995 | 80 (no publicly funded language programs (but no requirement to learn language for benefit receipt) |
| 1996-2023 | 0 (fully funded) |
Ever since immigrant-targeted language programs have been rolled out in France, they have been funded entirely by the French state (Guibentif 2004, EMN 2012, Ministry of the Interior 2022).
| AL4A | Availability of employment assistance |
| 1990-1995 | 67 (available to vulnerable groups only) |
| 1996-2005 | 17 (available to all immigrants intending to become permanent resident) |
| 2006-2023 | 0 (available to all immigrants) |
Until 1995, immigrant-targeted employment assistance only existed for refugees. Since 1995, such programs have become available to a wider range of migrants, in particular family migrants and others with the intention of settling permanently in France. Since the integration reform of 2005, immigrant-targeted employment assistance has been available to all immigrants (Guibentif 2004, IOM 2013, Shields et al. 2016).
| AL4B | Nature of employment assistance |
| 1990-2005 | 60 (assistance with finding employment) |
| 2006-2023 | 20 (integration training) |
Before 2005, services mostly consisted of helping eligible migrants navigate the labor market. Since the integration policy overhaul in the 2000s, assistance consists of more far-reaching and personalized integration training (IOM 2013, Ministry of the Interior 2022).
Works cited
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