The Immigrant Exclusion from Social Programs Index (IESPI)
The Immigrant Exclusion from Social Programs Index (IESPI)
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Australia

(Data collection by Besarta Kajmolli, Angela Sofo, and Edward Koning. When referring to this page, please use the following citation: Koning, E.A., Kajmolli, B. & Sofo, A. (2024). The IESPI Dataset – Australia country report. University of Guelph, www.iespi.ca/australia/.)

Tax-paid pensions

TP1AResidence requirement for complete universal tax-paid pension
1990-2023-8 (no universal public pension)

Australia has not had a universal pension throughout the time period under investigation. Its only tax-paid pension, the Age Pension, is means-tested (Social Security Act, 1991; Services Australia, n.d.-a).

TP1BResidence requirement for access to pro-rated portion
1990-2023-8 (no universal public pension)

As above.

TP2Residence requirement for means-tested supplement
1990-201522-41 (none for migrants from bilateral agreement countries, 10 years for others)
2016-202325-31 (none for migrants from some bilateral agreement countries, 1 year for migrants from other bilateral agreement countries, 10 years for others)

Since 1962, the residence requirement for accessing the Age Pension has been 10 years (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1988). Since the passing of the Social Security Act of 1991, this requirement is waived for refugees (Department of Social Services, n.d.-a). Migrants from countries with which Australia has signed bilateral social security agreements can count the years in their country of origin in determining the residence requirement which means they effectively face no residence requirement, even though some of these agreements still stipulate a (lower) minimum residence requirement. These countries are Canada, Italy, New Zealand (agreements in effect at least as of 1989); Malta and Spain (1991); Ireland, Netherlands, and Portugal (1992); Cyprus (1993); Denmark (2001); United States (2002); Germany (2003); Chile, Croatia, and Slovenia (2004); Belgium (2005); Norway (2007); Greece, Korea, and Switzerland (2008); Japan and Finland (2009); Poland (2010); Czechia (2011); Hungary and Slovakia (2012); Latvia (2013); India (2016); Austria (2017); and Estonia (2018) (Department of Social Services (n.d.-b). Australia also long had a bilateral agreement with the United Kingdom, but this agreement was terminated in 2001 (Department of Social Services (n.d.-c). Scores are weighted to account for the reductions affecting migrants from bilateral agreement countries using data on the inflow of foreign population by country of origin from the OECD Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.

TP3Status requirement for access to (means-tested) tax-paid pension
1990-199480 (citizens, permanent residents)
1995-200170 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals)
2002-202380 (citizens and permanent residents)

The only claimants who are eligible for the Age Pension are Australian residents. According to 1947 law, this includes citizens and all legal residents except undocumented migrants and temporary permit holders (Social Security Act, 1947, section 3). The Social Security Act of 1991 defines Australian residents as citizens, permanent visa holders, and holders of a protected Special Category Visa (Social Security Act, 1991, section 7; Services Australia, n.d.-a).). Between 1994 and 2001, migrants from New Zealand were issued a protected Special Category Visa, which gives privileged access to the Age Pension (Spinks and Klapdor, 2016).

TP4Export possibilities of universal public pension
1990-2023-8 (no universal public pension)

Australia has not had a universal pension throughout the time period under investigation (see above, TP1A).

Health care

HC1Residence requirements
1990-20230 (no waiting period)

All eligible migrants (see HC2) have immediate access to Medicare upon arrival (Department of Health and Aged Care, n.d.; Young, 1994). The only exception is that since 1994, there is a two-year waiting period before newcomers can access the means-tested Low Income Health Care Card which provides discounts and access to cheaper health care (Department of Human Services, n.d.), but this provision is not considered here.

HC2Status requirements
1990-202350 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, small number of temporary migrants)

For the entire duration under study, Medicare has been available to Australian citizens, permanent residents, and temporary residents who are in the process of applying for permanent residence and have either the right to work or a partner, parent, or child who is an Australian citizen. Other temporary migrants can only access Medicare if they are from a country with which Australia has a Reciprocal Health Care Agreement. All others are expected to secure private health care (interview AUS-01; Department of Immigration and Border Protection, n.d.-a, Dixit and Sambasivan, 2018).

HC3APublic health care services available to asylum seekers
1990-1992100 (none)
1993-202342 (some included in basic system, others receive services in reception centers)

Before 1992, asylum seekers were altogether ineligible for health care and expected to secure private insurance (Refugee Council of Australia, n.d.). Since then, almost all asylum seekers have been able to access basic health care services. Those who arrive with valid entry visas are able to access Medicare while their claim is being considered, while those who arrive without such visas are held in immigration detention, where they have access to basic health care (even though there is much criticism about the availability and quality of these services) (Foundation House, n.d.; Mainwaring and Cook, 2019; Victoria Department of Health & Human Services, 2014). To recognize this distinction, a score is assigned here that is the average of the score for inclusion in the basic system and the score for access to basic services in reception centers.

HC3BHealth care services available to undocumented migrants
1990-1992100 (none)
1993-202383 (emergency care, in deportation procedure)

 Undocumented migrants are ineligible for Medicare and are treated as private clients even for emergency services. Technically, undocumented migrants have been able to access health care services since 1992 by enrolling in the Status Resolution Support Services Program, but doing so results in efforts to ‘resolve’ the applicant’s status (which in many cases means deportation) (interview AUS-01, Glover and Woods, 2020, Department of Home Affairs, n.d.-a).

HC4AAccessibility services, translation services
1990-20230 (state-funded translation services guaranteed)

Since 1973, migrants in Australia have been able to access free translation services in the health care sector. Since the 1990s, these services have been operated at the state level (Kelaher and Manderson, 2000; Department of Home Affairs, n.d.-b).

HC4B Accessibility services, other attempts to increase uptake
1990-1997100 (no services)
1998-200975 (public recognition of need for cultural sensitivity in health care)
2010-202325 (assistance for immigrants accessing health care services)

Before the 1990s, attempts to increase immigrants’ uptake of health services consisted primarily of translation services (see HC4A). Since then, many states have undertaken additional initiatives. The largest state, New South Wales, established a Multicultural Health Communication Service in 1997, with as mandate to “strengthen the capacity of health services and programs to effectively and appropriately communicate with people from culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) backgrounds and coordinate the provision of multilingual health information” (NSW Multicultural Health Communication Service, n.d.-a). Since at least 1999, the Service has provided training to health care institutions on delivering health care in a culturally sensitive way and has run several health-related projects targeting immigrant communities (including related to accessing health care services) (NSW Multicultural Health Communication Service, n.d.-b).

Contributory pension benefit

CP1Minimum contribution years
1990-1992-8 (no contributory pension benefit)
1993-20230 (no minimum contribution period)

The Superannuation is a private pension program that acts as contributory pension. In 1992 it became mandatory by law for all employers to make payments to a super fund for all their employees who earn more than a very low threshold (about 5 hours of minimum wage per week). There is no minimum period of contribution before one can draw from the program (APRA, n.d.; Australian Taxation Office, n.d.-a, n.d.-b; OECD, 2009).

CP2Status requirements
1990-1992 -8 (no contributory pension benefit)
1993-202360 (citizens, permanent residents, long-term work permit holders)

Considering the structure of the Superannuation as described above, all legal workers in Australia are entitled to the program. Only some temporary migrants, such as domestic workers and expats, are ineligible (Australian Taxation Office, n.d.-c).

CP3Export possibilities
1990-1992-8 (no contributory pension benefit)
1993-20020 (export possible without restrictions)
2003-202311-17 (export possible without restrictions for most, but with cuts for temporary residents)

Permanent residents and Australian citizens can claim their Superannuation upon retirement from abroad without any restrictions. Temporary residents can receive their built-up Superannuation when they leave the country. The 2002 Superannuation Payments Withholding Tax bill, however, introduced significant taxation on that possibility, meaning that since then residents who claim their Superannuation upon leaving the country see a significant cut (up to 47 percent) in their funds (Australian Taxation Office, n.d.-d; House of Representatives, 2002). Scores are weighted based on the proportion of temporary residents in Australia’s immigrant population according to 2016 and 2021 Census data, and extrapolated and interpolated estimates for other years.

Contributory unemployment benefit

There are no contributory unemployment programs in Australia. Instead, all programs for the unemployed, such as the Unemployment Benefit, the Job Search Allowance, and the New Start Allowance, are means-tested (Ey, 2012; OECD, 2022, Young, 1994). All values for this social program in Australia are, therefore, -8 (no contributory unemployment benefit).

Housing benefits

HB1Residence requirement for housing benefits
1990-19930 (no waiting period)
1994-19965 (six months)
1997-201919 (two years)
2020-202338 (four years

Before 1993, there was no residence requirement for accessing rent assistance. Since then, most newcomers can only access rent assistance after the Newly Arrived Residents Waiting Period, which was six months from 1993 to 1996, two years from 1996 to 2019, and four years since 2019 (Australian Government, 2023; Boucher, 2014; Department of Social Services, n.d.-d).

HB2Status requirement for housing benefits
1990-199440 (citizens, permanent residents, some categories of temporary migrants)
1995-2001 30 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, some categories of temporary migrants)
2002-202340 (citizens, permanent residents, some categories of temporary migrants)

Housing benefits are only available to citizens and permanent residents, as well as holders of onshore permanent protection visas (i.e., refugee claimants who entered the country with a valid entry visa) and migrants who are awaiting an application for permanent residence. From 1994 to 2001, New Zealand nationals were granted a Special Category Visa which also granted access to housing benefits (Australian Government, 2023; NSW Communities and Justice, 2023-a, 2023-b).

HB3Integration requirements for housing benefits
1990-20230 (no integration requirements)

Australia has never placed any integration requirements on accessing housing benefits.

HB4Housing services for successful asylum claimants
1990-2023100 (no targeted services available)

While Australia has helped quota refugees in finding accommodation since at least 2005 through the Humanitarian Settlement Program, it does not offer any targeted housing support for successful asylum claimants (AMES, n.d.; De Maio et al., 2017; Department of Home Affairs, n.d.-c; Department of Social Services, n.d.-e; UNHCR, 2022).

Social assistance

SA1Residence requirements
1990-19930 (no waiting period)
1994-19965 (six months)
1997-201919 (two years)
2020-202338 (four years)

Before 1993, there was no residence requirement for accessing social assistance. Since then, most newcomers can only access social assistance after the Newly Arrived Residents Waiting Period, which was six months from 1993 to 1996, two years from 1996 to 2019, and four years since 2019 (Australian Government, 2023; Boucher, 2014). The only exempted categories are refugees, holders of certain humanitarian visas, and migrants who experience severe hardship for reasons beyond their control (Department of Social Services, n.d.-f).

SA2Status requirements
1990-199260 (citizens, permanent residents, small number of temporary migrants)
1993-199440 (citizens, permanent residents, some categories of temporary migrants)
1995-200130 (citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents, some categories of temporary migrants)
2002-202340 (citizens, permanent residents, some categories of temporary migrants)

Only permanent residents and citizens have access to social assistance. The only exceptions are threefold. First, some temporary residents in severe financial hardship can receive social assistance for a short period of time. Second, since 1992 asylum seekers in financial need have been able to access targeted social assistance benefits under the Status Resolution Support Services Program. And third, between 1994 and 2001, citizens from New Zealand received a Special Protection Visa, which also granted access to social assistance (Department of Home Affairs, n.d.-a; Department of Social Services, n.d.-a; Millbank, 2007; Saunders 1991).

SA3Consequences of welfare uptake
1990-20230 (no consequences)

Drawing on social assistance benefits cannot affect a migrant’s legal status in Australia. Migrants with precarious status who seek social assistance through the Status Resolution Support Services Programme are required to cooperate with the Department of Immigration to resolve their immigration status, but this cannot result in the loss of an already acquired status. (Department of Immigration and Border Protection, n.d.-b).

SA4Integration requirements
1990-20230 (no integration requirements)

Australia has never placed any integration requirements on accessing social assistance benefits.

Active labor market policies

AL1Residence requirements
1990-19930 (no waiting period)
1994-19965 (six months)
1997-201919 (two years)
2020-202338 (four years)

Access to active labor market policies is tied to receipt of income support, and therefore the Newly Arrived Residents Waiting Period applies, except again for refugees (see for example SA1) (Department of Social Services, n.d.-a; Young, 1994).

AL2Status requirements
1990-199260 (citizens, permanent residents, small number of temporary migrants)
1993-199440 (citizens, permanent residents, some categories of temporary migrants)
1995-200130 citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents, some categories of temporary migrants)
2002-202340 (citizens, permanent residents, some categories of temporary migrants)

Access to active labor market policies is tied to receipt of income support, and therefore the same status requirements apply as for access to social assistance and other benefits (see SA1).

AL3AAvailability of language programs
1990-202329 (available for all permanent residents and some temporary residents)

Australia has offered English language training to immigrants since the 1940s. Since 1971, this has consisted of 510 hours of training, available to all permanent residents and some classes of temporary migrants (Department of Home Affairs, n.d.-d; Immigration Education Act, 1971; Martin 1998; Pietsch, 2013). A 2020 reform removed this time limit, making sure migrants could continue taking lessons until they reach proficiency at the vocational level (Australian Government, 2021).

AL3BPublic funding of language programs
1990-19930 (fully funded)
1994-202320 (fully funded for some, nominal fees for others)

English language training for migrants is technically free for everyone, and participants are even able to take advantage of free daycare when they take their classes. However, since 1993 some categories of migrants who lack functional proficiency in English are charged higher visa fees to offset the costs of the ‘free’ language training (Australian National Audit Office, 2001; Department of Immigration and Border Protection, 2017; Pietsch, 2013).

AL4AAvailability of employment assistance
1990-2000-8 (no targeted services available)
2001-202367 (available to vulnerable groups only)

Until the 1990s, most of the efforts to help immigrants on the labor market were uncoordinated and small in scope. This changed with the introduction of the Integrated Humanitarian Settlement Strategy in 2000. Since then, there is a range of settlement services available, but they exclusively target vulnerable groups of migrants, in particular refugees, and in case of some programs, family migrants and dependents of skilled migrants with low levels of English language proficiency (Leibig, 2007; Refugee Council of Australia, 2022, Spinks, 2009).

AL4BNature of employment assistance
1990-200080 (programs combating discrimination on the labor market)
2001-202320 (integration training)

Before the 2000s, available services were limited to programs combating discrimination on the labor market. Since then, settlement services are also available that help newcomers integrate into Australian society and assist them in finding employment (Department of Home Affairs, n.d.-e; Spinks 2009).

Works cited