(Data collection by Zina Bibanovic, Lilla Eperjesi, and Edward Koning. When referring to this page, please use the following citation: Koning, E.A., Bibanovic, Z. & Eperjesi, L. (2024). The IESPI Database – Netherlands country report. University of Guelph, www.iespi.ca/netherlands/.)
Tax-paid pensions
| TP1A | Residence requirement for complete universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | 100 (50 years of residence) |
In order to be eligible for the universal pension AOW, one needs to have 50 years of residence in the Netherlands between 15 and 65 years of age (Government of the Netherlands n.d.-a, Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid 2008).
| TP1B | Residence requirement for access to pro-rated portion of universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | 10 (1 year of residence) |
Applicants with a shorter residence history receive a prorated benefit, such that they will receive 2% of a full benefit for every year of residence in the Netherlands (Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid 2008, SVB n.d.-a).
| TP2 | Residence requirement, means-tested supplement |
| 1990-2003 | 55 (no program) |
| 2004-2023 | 3 (1 year) |
A legislative reform in 2003 introduces the Aanvullende Inkomensvoorziening Ouderen (AIO), a means-tested benefit for elderly with low pension income that does not come with any direct residence requirement (but because it requires the applicant to receive at least some income from the AOW, there is an indirect 1-year requirement). Before that, low-income elderly were forced to rely on social assistance (interview NET-01, SVB n.d.-b, Tweede Kamer der Staten Generaal 2003, 2009).
| TP3 | Status requirement for access to tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | 70 (citizens, permanent residents, and privileged nationals) |
The AOW is available to all long-term residents of the Netherlands. Third-country nationals on a temporary permit are technically able to claim benefits if they have worked and resided in the Netherlands, but uptake is very low (Koning 2019, Pennings 2020).
| TP4 | Export possibilities, universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2000 | 0 (without restrictions) |
| 2001-2014 | 19-26 (without restrictions to countries with which Netherlands has social security agreements, with cuts in benefits to others) |
| 2015-2023 | 53-54 (without restrictions to social security agreement countries with a higher standard of living, with cuts in benefits elsewhere) |
Before 2000, the AOW could be exported without restrictions anywhere in the world. Since then, however, recipients in countries with which the Netherlands has no social security agreement have received a cut in their benefit of 50%. Since 2014, the Netherlands has applied the ‘country of residence principle’, which adjusts the level of the pension benefit downwards in case the standard of living in the country in which the recipient resides is lower than in the Netherlands. Since the standard of living is higher in only a small number of relevant countries (Australia, Canada, Finland, Germany, Luxembourg, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States), most recipients abroad see a cut in their benefit (EMN 2014, Government of the Netherlands, n.d.-b, interview NET-01, Koning 2019). Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the proportion of migrants from countries with which the Netherlands has social security arrangements (and among those, where the standard of living is higher than in the Netherlands) using data on the stock of foreign-born individuals by country of origin from the OECD Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
Health care
| HC1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no residence requirements) |
There is no residence requirement for accessing health care in the Netherlands. Before 2006, all employed individuals were mandatorily insured and all other residents had access to voluntary insurance. Since 2006, everyone residing in the Netherlands for more than 3 months is mandatorily insured. Access to healthcare is immediately available upon insurance (Anderson & Van Druenen 2021, Bertens and Palamar 2021, EMN 2014, Government of the Netherlands n.d.-c).
| HC2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1998 | 0 (all residents) |
| 1999-2023 | 20 (all registered residents) |
Before the introduction of the 1998 Koppelingswet, which coupled access to social programs to legal residence in the Netherlands, in principle every resident was able to access health care. Since then, only those who are registered in the population registry, which requires one to demonstrate the right to stay in the country for at least 3 months, can access public health care (Anderson & Van Druenen 2021, Bertens and Palamar 2021, EMN 2014, interview NET-02, Koning 2019).
| HC3A | Public health care available to asylum seekers |
| 1990-2023 | 17 (expanded coverage not available to all native-born citizens) |
Since the introduction of asylum reception centers in 1987, asylum seekers have access to medical care that includes some services that are not covered in standard insurance packages. In practice, however, there are frequent complaints that asylum seekers do not have access to the type of care to which they are legally entitled, especially at times that the number of claimants is large (Derckx 2022, Frydryszak & Macherey 2016, RMA 2024, Van der Bijl et al. 2013).
| HC3B | Public health care available to undocumented migrants |
| 1990-1998 | 0 (included in regular system) |
| 1999-2023 | 33 (emergency care, treatment of communicable diseases, perinatal care) |
Undocumented migrants have only been formally excluded from the public system since the introduction of the 1998 Koppelingswet. Since then, they can access medically necessary care as defined by a general practitioner, which can include treatment of communicable diseases and perinatal care (Cuadra 2011, interview NET-02, Frydryszak & Macherey 2016).
| HC4A | Accessibility services, translation services |
| 1990-2011 | 0 (state-funded translation services guaranteed) |
| 2012-2023 | 83 (information brochures) |
The Netherlands used to subsidize interpretation services in hospitals. However, this subsidy was discontinued in 2012. Since then, the only accommodation for non-Dutch speakers is the availability of information brochures in a select number of languages (Devillé et al. 2011, interview NET-02, Renée 2015).
| HC4B | Accessibility services, other attempts to increase uptake |
| 1990-2023 | 100 (no services) |
There is little effort in the Netherlands to pursue culturally sensitive health care delivery. Some NGOs provide training in cultural competence, and some medical professionals have made individual efforts to increase cultural competence their ability to deliver more culturally sensitive care, but there are no state-led initiatives to this effect (Hoshmand et al. 2024, Includeu n.d., Şekercan et al. 2021).
Contributory pension benefit
| CP1 | Minimum contribution years |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no contributory pension program) |
There is no centralized contributory pension program in the Netherlands. Most pensioners draw retirement income from supplementary pension programs that are set up by their employers and are run by private pension funds and insurance companies (Government of the Netherlands n.d.-d).
| CP2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no contributory pension program) |
There is no contributory pension program in the Netherlands.
| CP3 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no contributory pension program) |
There is no contributory pension program in the Netherlands.
Contributory unemployment benefits
| CU1 | Minimum contribution weeks |
| 1990-2023 | 10-20 (26 weeks, migrants from EU/EEA/Switzerland can aggregate) |
Since 1987, one needs to have a contribution history of at least 26 weeks to receive some level of unemployment benefit. Migrants from the EU, EEA, and Switzerland can count work history in their country of origin (European Commission n.d., Mooi-Reci 2012). Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the proportion of migrants who can benefit from these aggregation arrangements using data on the inflow of foreigners by country of origin from the OED Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
| CU2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2000 | 0 (all legal residents) |
| 2001-2011 | 13 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, long-term work permit holders, asylum seekers) |
| 2012-2023 | 38 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, long-term work permit holders) |
The only formal status requirement for accessing contributory unemployment benefits is legal residence. However, the 2000 Alien Act stipulated that benefit access would only be granted to immigrants in cases where the benefits ‘harmonize with the nature of their residence’, thereby effectively disentitling temporary residents such as international students. In 2011, a reform limited the number of weeks asylum seekers were allowed to work to 24 with the precise intent of avoiding they would be able to build up entitlement to unemployment benefits (the Court of The Hague, however, ruled in 2023 that this restriction violates EU Law) (De Rechtspraak 2023, EMN 2014, Koning 2019).
| CU3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2006 | 0 (no integration requirement) |
| 2007-2023 | 80 (tied to integration program, with minimal exemptions) |
The Netherlands introduced integration requirements for accessing unemployment benefits in 2006. In particular, it forced all migrants on unemployment benefits to either acquire language skills and knowledge of Dutch society or lose their benefits (Government of the Netherlands n.d.-e, Koning 2019).
| CU4 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-2023 | 80-90 (up to three months within EEA, not possible elsewhere) |
Unemployment benefits are not exportable. However, as a result of EEC regulation no. 1408/71 and EC regulation 883/2004, recipients can retain their benefit while looking for employment in other member states of the EU or EEA for up to 3 months (De Wispelaere et al. 2020, EMN 2014, UWV n.d.).
Housing benefits
| HB1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
During the period under study, there have not been any residence requirements to access either rent subsidies or social housing (Belastingdienst n.d., Ponzo 2010, Tweede Kamer der Staten Generaal 1984).
| HB2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1998 | 0 (all residents) |
| 1999-2023 | 20 (all registered residents) |
The 1984 law on rent subsidy did not specify any status requirements. The introduction of the 1998 Koppelingswet, however, made legal residence a requirement. Since then, only those who are registered in the population registry (which requires permission to stay at least for 3 months) are eligible (Koning 2019, Ponzo 2010, Tweede Kamer der Staten Generaal 1984, Van Parys & Verbruggen 2004).
| HB3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There are no integration requirements associated with accessing rent subsidy in the Netherlands.
| HB4 | Housing services for successful asylum claimants |
| 1990-1994 | 100 (no targeted services available) |
| 1995-2023 | 40 (services assisting on housing market) |
Since 1994, municipalities have the obligation to find accommodation for recognized refugees. However, meeting this obligation has proven challenging at times of large inflows, and as a result many successful asylum seekers remain in reception centers long after their claims have been recognized (Jansen 2006, Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijksrelaties n.d., Mulder 2016, Puts 1995, Tweede Kamer der Staten Generaal 2014).
Social assistance
| SA1 | Residence requirement |
| 1990-2000 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
| 2001-2004 | 34-36 (tied to permit requiring 5 years of residence, except for EU nationals) |
| 2005-2023 | 19-29 (tied to permit requiring 5 years of residence, 3 months for EU nationals) |
There was no formal residence requirement for accessing social assistance until the 1999 Decision Expansion and Reduction Insurance Sphere Public Insurance Programs and the 2000 Aliens Act, which established, respectively, that social assistance is only available to permanent residents and that permanent residence can only be granted after 5 years of residence. EU nationals are exempted from these requirements but since the introduction of EU directive 2004/38 can be denied access to social assistance in the first three months of residing in the Netherlands (Heeger-Hertter 2019, Koning 2019, Tweede Kamer der Staten Generaal 2000). Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the proportion of EU migrants using data on the inflow of foreigners by country of origin from the OED Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
| SA2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1998 | 0 (all residents) |
| 1999 | 20 (all registered residents) |
| 2000-2023 | 50 (citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents, and small number of temporary migrants) |
Before the introduction of the 1998 Koppelingswet, all residents were able to apply for social assistance, but since then registration in the population registry was required. The 1999 Decision Expansion and Reduction Insurance Sphere Public Insurance Programs limited access to permanent residents. The only categories of migrants without a permanent residence permit who are able to access social assistance are EU nationals, recognized refugees, and, in individual cases, migrants who can demonstrate in court that they have a ‘durable connection’ to the Netherlands (Government of the Netherlands n.d.-f, Koning 2019).
| SA3 | Consequences of welfare uptake |
| 1990-2000 | 0 (no consequences) |
| 2001-2023 | 71 (loss of right of residence for some but not all temporary migrants) |
Since the passing of the 2000 Aliens Act, temporary permit holders are at risk of losing their right of residence if they take up social assistance. And as a result of a 2006 welfare reform, the same applies to EU citizens who have resided in the country for more than 3 months but less than 5 years (Expatinfo 2020, Koning 2019, Tweede Kamer der Staten Generaal 2000).
| SA4 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-1999 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
| 2000-2006 | 60 (tied to permit with integration requirements for some migrants) |
| 2007-2023 | 80 (receipt tied to integration program, with minimal exemptions) |
A 1998 reform made 600 hours of language and social orientation classes mandatory for all permanent residents, and as such an indirect requirement for third country-nationals as soon as permanent residence became a requirement for accessing social assistance. A subsequent reform in 2006 explicitly tied access to social assistance to successful participation in language and integration classes (Ersanilli 2007, Koning 2019, Zorlu 2013).
Active labor market policies
| AL1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-1994 | -8 (no active labor market programs) |
| 1995-2000 | 5 (tied to permit demanding no residence requirement) |
| 2001-2004 | 7 (tied to permit demanding 26 weeks of work history for TCNs) |
| 2005-2023 | 8-9 (tied to permit demanding 26 weeks of work history for TCNs, three months for EU nationals) |
The Netherlands first introduced active labor market policies in 1994. Since then, most programs have been available only to recipients of either social assistance or unemployment benefits. As a result, the residence requirements here mirror the minimum residence requirements for unemployment benefits and social assistance (Bruttel and Sol 2006, Cox 1998, Hemerijck and Visser 1999, Lammers and Kok 2021, Lindsay and McQuaid 2009).
| AL2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1994 | -8 (no active labor market programs) |
| 1995-1998 | 0 (all residents) |
| 1999-2000 | 20 (all registered residents) |
| 2001-2011 | 30 (citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents, some categories of temporary migrants) |
| 2012-2023 | 50 (citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents, and small number of temporary migrants) |
As above: since most active labor market policies are only available to recipients of unemployment or social assistance benefits, the status requirements here follow the minimum status requirements for those benefits (see CU2, SA2).
| AL3A | Availability of language programs |
| 1990-1998 | -8 (no publicly funded programs available) |
| 1999-2012 | 14 (available for any immigrant) |
| 2013-2022 | -8 (no publicly funded programs available) |
| 2023 | 57 (available to most migrants, but offered unevenly across the country) |
The Netherlands first started offering funded language programs in 1998 as part of its reform on integration requirements. In 2007, these services were privatized and immigrants were required to pay part of the expenses. A reform in 2012 abolished all government funding for these programs. Since the passing of a new integration act in 2022, municipalities are allowed to run these programs, but only few have taken up this possibility (Ersanilli 2007, Gebhardt 2016, Government of the Netherlands n.d.-g, Koning 2019).
| AL3B | Public funding of language programs |
| 1990-1998 | 80 (no publicly funded programs, but no requirement to learn language) |
| 1999-2007 | 0 (fully funded) |
| 2008-2012 | 40 (nominal fees) |
| 2013-2023 | 100 (no publicly funded language programs, but required to learn language) |
As described above, immigrants have been able to access language programs for free starting in 1998. As of 2007, they have been asked to cover part of the expenses. Since 2012, they are required to foot the bill themselves (Ersanilli 2007, Gebhardt 2016, Government of the Netherlands n.d.-g, Koning 2019).
| AL4A | Availability of employment assistance |
| 1990-1998 | -8 (no targeted services available) |
| 1999-2012 | 0 (available to all immigrants) |
| 2013-2023 | -8 (no targeted services available) |
The Netherlands started offering programs to assist immigrants’ employment opportunities in 1998. All these programs were discontinued, however, in 2012 (Ersanilli 2007, Koning 2019, Shaw 2002).
| AL4B | Nature of employment assistance |
| 1990-1998 | 100 (nothing available) |
| 1999-2012 | 20 (integration training) |
| 2013-2023 | 100 (nothing available) |
From 1998 until 2004, the Netherlands offered publicly funded integration courses and introduced a law specifically designed to trace and increase the employment of ethnic minorities (the Samen Law). These programs disappeared quickly, however: the Samen Law was abolished in 2004, and in 2012 the government stopped funding integration courses. By that time all other immigrant-targeted employment assistance programs had been cancelled as well.
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