(Data collection by Alexandra Broun and Edward Koning. When referring to this page, please use the following citation: Koning, E.A. & Broun, A. (2024). The IESPI Dataset – Finland country report. University of Guelph, www.iespi.ca/finland/.)
Tax-paid pensions
| TP1A | Residence requirement for complete universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-1994 | 0 (5 years) |
| 1995-2023 | 78 (40 years) |
Before 1994, the residence requirement for accessing the tax-paid national pension was 5 years for foreigners. When Finland joined the EU, however, its pension was reorganized such that full access was available only after 40 years (Kela n.d.-a , Kotkas 2016).
| TP1B | Residence requirement for access to pro-rated portion of universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-1994 | -7 (no pro-rating possible) |
| 1995-2007 | 50 (5 years) |
| 2008-2023 | 30 (3 years) |
Accessing a pro-rated portion was not possible before the 1994 pension reform. After that, a pro-rated portion became available after five years of residence in the country, which was lowered to three years in 2007 (Kalliomaa-Puha 2020, Kela n.d.-a).
| TP2 | Residence requirement, means-tested supplement |
| 1990-1994 | 0 (TP1=0) |
| 1995-2011 | 54-64 (no program, so TP2=TP1) |
| 2012-2023 | 7 (3 years for third country nationals, 1 year for migrants from Nordic states, EU/EEA/Switzerland) |
Before the pension reform in 1994, the absence of any means-tested supplement was understandable considering that everyone would be able to access the full national pension benefit after five years of residence in the country. Since the reform, however, people with a short residence history saw their benefit level drop considerably. A 2011 reform introduced a guaranteed pension aimed at guaranteeing a minimum pension income for anyone with at least three years of residence in the country. This requirement can be reduced to one year if the applicant has previous residence history in other EU countries, EEA countries, or Switzerland (Airio & Nurminen 2016, Kela n.d.-b, Kotkas 2016). Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the proportion of incoming migrants from EU/EEA/Switzerland using the OECD Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
| TP3 | Status requirement for access to tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | 30 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, some categories of temporary migrants) |
Tax-paid pensions are only available to residents who are considered to have settled permanently in Finland. Migrants with very short or uncertain purpose in the country, such as seasonal workers, au pairs, students, asylum applicants, and undocumented migrants, are explicitly excluded. Nordic citizens and, since Finland joined the EU, EU citizens are included as well (Kalliomaa-Puha 2020, Kela n.d.-a, Könönen 2018a, Trier 1982).
| TP4 | Export possibilities, universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-1994 | 65-68 (without restrictions to some, with additional residence requirements to others, impossible elsewhere) |
| 1995-2023 | 48-56 (without restrictions to some, with additional residence requirements to others, with benefit cuts to others, only for short periods to others) |
Before the 1994 pension reform, the national pension could only be exported without restrictions to the Nordic countries, and to Canada (as of 1989) and the United States (as of 1993) with additional residence requirements. Since then, the reform can be exported without restrictions to EU/EEA countries and Switzerland, with additional residence requirements to Chile (since 1998), Israel (since 2000), India (since 2013), and South Korea (since 2018), and with a cut in the benefit level to Australia (since 2010). In addition, the benefit can be exported for up to a year anywhere else in the world (Kalliomaa-Puha 2020, Kela n.d.-c, n.d.-d, Koikkalainen et al. 2012, Malin 2020, Ministry of Social Affairs and Health 1956). Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the stock of migrants from these various categories of countries using the OECD Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
Health care
| HC1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2004 | 100 (tied to permit requiring at least 5 years of residence) |
| 2005-2023 | 0 (no waiting period) |
There is no residence requirement for accessing health care in Finland. However, because before 2004, only permanent residents and citizens were able to access the public health care system (see below), there was an indirect residence requirement of at least five years at that time (Helander et al. 2016, Kela n.d.-e, Teperi et al. 2009, Kiuru 2014).
| HC2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2011 | 70 (citizens, permanent residents, and privileged nationals) |
| 2012-2023 | 30 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, some categories of temporary migrants) |
The public health care system is available to all permanent residents, Nordic citizens, and, since 2004, all EU citizens as well. Since 2011, third-country nationals with a job and work permit as well as registered job seekers with at least a 6-month employment history can also access the basic system (Kela n.d.-e, Könönen 2018a, 2018b, Kotkas 2016, Martikainen et al. 2012).
| HC3A | Public health care available to asylum seekers |
| 1990-2023 | 50 (basic services covered in reception centres) |
Asylum seekers are excluded from the public health care system. They are covered by a parallel system that is decidedly less generous (Contact Point for Cross-Border Healthcare, n.d. Tuomisto et al. 2019).
| HC3B | Public health care available to undocumented migrants |
| 1990-2023 | 67 (emergency care, with user fees) |
Everyone else who is excluded from the public health care system, including undocumented migrants, can received emergency care but can be charged for such care afterwards (Cuadra 2011, Könönen 2018a, Tuomisto et al. 2019)
| HC4A | Accessibility services, translation services |
| 1990-1992 | 100 (nothing available) |
| 1993-1999 | 67 (translation services occasionally available in some languages) |
| 2000-2023 | 0 (state-funded translation services guaranteed) |
Since 1992, patients have had the right to interpreter services, but the costs for such services have only been covered by (national or municipal) authorities since 1999 (Eklöf et al. 2014, InfoFinland, n.d., Tiilikainen 2022, Wahlbeck et al. 2008).
| HC4B | Accessibility services, other attempts to increase uptake |
| 1990-1992 | 100 (no services) |
| 1993-2006 | 75 (public recognition, but practical implication unclear) |
| 2007-2023 | 50 (diversity training available to health care practitioners) |
Since 1992, Finnish law recognized a patient’s right to receive culturally competent care. Since at least 2006, this has resulted in a variety of diversity training programs, both as part of educational curricula and as additional training for existing health care professionals (Helminen et al. 2021, Paatela et al. 2023, Paric et al. 2021, Repo et al. 2017, Tobah et al. 2021).
Contributory pension benefit
| CP1 | Minimum contribution years |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no minimum contributions) |
There is no minimum contribution period before one becomes eligible for contributory pension benefits in Finland. Any contribution history will result in some level of pension (Finnish Centre for Pensions n.d.-a, n.d-b, Kiuru 2014).
| CP2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 40 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, long-term work permit holders) |
Anyone who works legally in Finland pays contributions to the earnings-related pension, but some workers, such as seasonal workers and au pairs, will never be able to access the pension (Finnish Centre for Pensions n.d.-b, Könönen 2018a).
| CP3 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (export possible without restrictions) |
The earnings-related pension is payable anywhere in the world (Finnish Centre for Pensions n.d.-a, Koikkalainen et al. 2012).
Contributory unemployment benefits
| CU1 | Minimum contribution weeks |
| 1990-1992 | 5 (6 weeks, Nordic citizens can aggregate) |
| 1993-1994 | 11 (13 weeks, Nordic citizens can aggregate) |
| 1995-1996 | 10 (13 weeks, EU nationals and Nordic citizens can aggregate) |
| 1997-2010 | 32-34 (43 weeks, EU nationals and Nordic citizens can aggregate) |
| 2011-2013 | 27 (34 weeks, EU nationals and Nordic citizens can aggregate) |
| 2014-2023 | 19-21 (26 weeks, EU nationals and Nordic citizens can aggregate) |
The minimum contribution requirement for first-time unemployed to access contributory unemployment benefits have changed considerably over time: they were 6 weeks until 1992, 13 weeks since then until 1996, 43 weeks since then until 2010, 34 weeks since then until 2013, and 26 weeks since then. Nordic citizens and (since Finland joined the EU) EU nationals have been able to count their work history in other member states in determining eligibility (Finlex 2002, 2023a, Kyyrä et al. 2017, Trier 1982). Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the proportion of EU migrants (coding them as facing no minimum contribution requirements) using data on the inflow of foreigners by country of origin from the OECD Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
| CU2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 38 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, long-term work permit holders) |
Unemployment benefits are available to all unemployed job-seeking residents who are fit for work, looking for a full-time job, and meet the work requirement. Labor migrants whose permits are tied to a specific employer or sector of employment, recently arrived asylum seekers, au pairs, and international students all have restricted access to the labor market and are therefore excluded (Job Market Finland n.d., Koikkalainen et al. 2012, Könönen 2018a, Kyyrä et al. 2017).
| CU3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There are no specific immigrant-targeted integration requirements associated with accessing unemployment benefits in Finland. Since 1994, recipients of unemployment benefits can be asked to participate in training programs to improve their standing on the labor market, but there are no distinctions in these requirements between native-born Fins and immigrants (Job Market Finland n.d., Karjalainen & Saikku 2011).
| CU4 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-1993 | 100 (not possible) |
| 1994-2023 | 85-89 (up to three months within EEA, not possible elsewhere) |
Unemployment benefits can only be accessed by those who reside in Finland. However, as per EEC regulation no. 1408/71 and EC regulation no. 883/2004, since EU joined the EEA recipients can retain the period for a period of up to 3 months while searching for employment in a different member state (De Wispelaere et al., 2020, Malin 2020). Scores have been weighted using data on stock of foreign-born population by country of birth from the OECD Migration Database.
Housing benefits
| HB1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
There is no residence requirement for accessing housing benefits in Finland. However, long-term residence is a criterion in the allocation of municipal social housing (Kaupinen 2002, Kela n.d.-f, Koikkalainen et al. 2012).
| HB2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 30 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, some categories of migrants) |
Housing benefits are only available to those who are considered to be settling or have settled permanently in Finland. Labor migrants with a permit of less than one year, au pairs, and international students are excluded. Nordic citizens and, since Finland joined the EU, EU nationals of course have a privileged status in this respect (Kela n.d.-f, Könönen 2018a).
| HB3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There are no integration requirements associated with accessing social housing or housing benefits in Finland (Juntunen & Al Aloulou 2019, Kaupinen 2002, Kela n.d.-f).
| HB4 | Preferential treatment in housing |
| 1990-2023 | 40 (services assisting on housing market) |
Since 1985, quota refugees are settled directly in housing assigned to them by the Finnish authorities. Asylum seekers who receive a positive decision on their claim can stay in reception centers until the authorities find appropriate housing for them or they find housing themselves (Juntunen & Aloulou 2019, UNHCR, 2018).
Social assistance
| SA1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-1994 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
| 1995-2004 | 7-8 (1 year for TCNs, none for citizens from EU, EEA, Switzerland) |
| 2005-2023 | 8 (1 year for TCNs, three months for citizens from EU, EEA, Switzerland) |
Initially, social assistance in Finland was available to any resident, without any length of residence requirement. A reform in 1994, however, made social assistance exclusively available to those who are considered to be permanently residing in Finland. For citizens from the EU, EEA, and Switzerland, registration in the municipality usually satisfies that requirement, but third country nationals are usually expected to demonstrate at least one year of uninterrupted residence in Finland. Since the introduction of EU directive 2004/38, EU nationals cannot claim benefits in the first three months (Helander, Holly & Uuttana 2016, Kalliomaa-Puha 2020, Koikkalainen et al. 2012, Kotkas 2016). Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the proportion of incoming migrants from EU/EEA/Switzerland using the OECD Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
| SA2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1994 | 10 (all legal residents) |
| 1995-2023 | 30 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, some categories of temporary migrants) |
As discussed above (SA1), social assistance used to be available to all legal residents, but since 1994 the benefit is only available to those who are considered to be residing permanently in the country (Dalli 2019, Kela n.d.-g).
| SA3 | Consequences of welfare uptake |
| 1990-2003 | 14 (delayed access to PR or citizenship) |
| 2004-2023 | 43 (non-renewal of temporary permit) |
Welfare uptake has been an explicit ground to deny access to Finnish citizenship. Since 2004, repeated welfare uptake is also grounds to deny migrants the renewal of a residence permit (Kotkas 2016, Stadlmaier 2018).
| SA4 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-1999 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
| 2000-2023 | 80 (receipt tied to integration program) |
Since 1999, immigrants on welfare have seen cutbacks in their benefits in cases where they refuse to participate in integration plans (Finlex 2023b, Van Aerschot 2014).
Active labor market policies
| AL1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-1994 | -8 (no active labour market policies) |
| 1995-1996 | 7 (tied to receipt of benefits requiring at least 13 weeks of work history) |
| 1997-2010 | 12 (tied to receipt of benefits requiring at least 41 weeks of work history) |
| 2011-2013 | 11 (tied to receipt of benefits requiring at least 33 weeks of work history) |
| 2014-2023 | 9 (tied to receipt of benefits requiring at least 25 weeks of work history) |
Finland introduced its first active labor market policies in 1994. Since then, access to virtually all of these policies has been tied to receipt of either unemployment benefits or social assistance, and therefore comes with an indirect residence requirement (Karjalainen & Saikku 2011, Krivinos 2019). Scores on this indicator follow the work history requirement of unemployment benefits, which is shorter than the residence requirement for social assistance (see CU1, SA1).
| AL2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1994 | -8 (no active labour market policies) |
| 1995-2023 | 30 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, some categories of temporary migrants) |
Since the introduction of the first active labour market policies, they have been available to anyone being able to demonstrate they live in Finland permanently (Karjalainen & Saikku 2011, Könönen 2018a, Krivinos 2019).
| AL3A | Availability of language programs |
| 1990-1999 | -8 (no publicly funded programs available) |
| 2000-2009 | 71 (available for vulnerable groups only) |
| 2010-2023 | 29 (available for all permanent residents and some temporary residents) |
Finland did not adopt any formal integration policy until 1999. Since then, municipalities have been required to develop individualized integration plans for all migrants who are unemployed and in receipt of income support, which include language, education, and work training. Since an integration policy reform in 2010, integration programs including language training are available to all migrants who are able to demonstrate (the intent of) permanent residence in Finland (Martikainen et al. 2012, Masoud et al. 2021, Sagne & Saksela-Bergholm 2014, Van Aerschot 2014).
| AL3B | Public funding of language programs |
| 1990-1999 | 80 (no publicly funded language programs, but no requirement to learn language for benefit receipt) |
| 2000-2023 | 0 (fully funded) |
Ever since immigrant-targeted language programs have been introduced in Finland, they have been free of charge.
| AL4A | Availability of employment assistance |
| 1990-1999 | 100 (available to select groups, but offered unevenly across the country) |
| 2000-2009 | 67 (available to vulnerable groups only) |
| 2010-2023 | 17 (available to all immigrants intending to become permanent resident) |
Before the first integration act of 1999, there were occasional integration programs targeting refugee migrants. Since then, municipalities have been required to develop individualized integration plans for all migrants who are unemployed and in receipt of income support, and since 2010, for all migrants who are able to demonstrate (the intent of) permanent residence in Finland (Martikainen et al. 2012, Masoud et al. 2021, Sagne & Saksela-Bergholm 2014, Van Aerschot 2014).
| AL4B | Nature of employment assistance |
| 1990-1999 | 60 (assistance with finding employment) |
| 2000-2023 | 20 (integration training) |
The occasional integration assistance for refugees before the 1990s primarily consisted of assistance in finding employment. Since the introduction of formal integration policies, the employment assistance goes much further and consists of individualized integration plans (Van Aerschot 2014).
Works cited
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