The Immigrant Exclusion from Social Programs Index (IESPI)
The Immigrant Exclusion from Social Programs Index (IESPI)
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Canada

(Data collection by Taelor Reid, Camila Rivas-Garrido, and Edward Koning. When referring to this page, please use the following citation: Koning, E.A., Reid, T. & Rivas-Garrido, C. (2024). The IESPI Dataset – Canada country report. University of Guelph, www.iespi.ca/canada/.)

Tax-paid pensions

TP1AResidence requirement for complete universal tax-paid pension
1990-202378 (40 years)

The federal universal tax-paid pension in Canada, Old Age Security, requires legal residence of 40 years for a complete benefit (Government of Canada, n.d.-a; Ferrer et al., 2020; Koning & Banting, 2013).

TP1BResidence requirement for access to pro-rated portion of universal tax-paid pension
1990-202331-90 (10 years, but with totalization possible for migrants from countries with which Canada has social security agreements)

Ten years of residence are required to access a pro-rated portion of the Old Age Security benefit. Migrants from countries with which Canada has struck a social security agreement with OAS provisions, however, can count years of residence in those countries in determining their eligibility (Government of Canada, n.d.-a; n.d.-b; Koning & Banting, 2013; Curtis et al. 2017). These countries are: Austria, Australia, Barbados, Belgium, Denmark, Dominica, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Jamaica, Portugal, Spain, St. Lucia, Sweden, United States (agreements in place at least since 1990); Luxembourg and Netherlands (since 1991); Cyprus, Ireland (since 1992); Malta (since 1993); Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Kitts and Nevis (since 1994); Switzerland (since 1996); Mexico, Norway (since 1997); New Zealand, Philippines (since 1998); Chile, Vincent and Grenadines (since 1999); Croatia, Grenada, Korea, Trinidad and Tobago (since 2000); Slovenia (since 2001); Uruguay (since 2002); Czech Republic, Slovakia (since 2003); Hungary (since 2004); Turkey (since 2005); Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania (since 2007); Japan (since 2009); Poland (since 2010); Morocco (since 2011); Macedonia, Romania (since 2012); Bulgaria, Brazil, Serbia (since 2015); India (since 2016); China (since 2017); and Albania (since 2023). Scores are weighted to account for the proportion of migrants from these countries (coding them as facing no residence requirement) using data on the inflow of immigrants from the OECD Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data. 

TP2Residence requirement, means-tested supplement
1990-199636-38 (10 years, but with totalization possible for migrants from countries with which Canada has social security agreements)
1997-202328-42 (10 years)

There is a means-tested pension benefit for low-income elderly with incomplete pension income, called the Guaranteed Income Supplement. The benefit is only available for recipients of some level of Old Age Security, which means that the GIS is not accessible until migrants have resided in the country for at least 10 years. Since 1984, the benefit has been available earlier in cases where the applicant had resided for 10 years in Canada and one of the countries with which Canada has a bilateral social security agreement; however, a 1996 reform denied this early access to virtually all applicants (Curtis et al. 2017; Koning & Banting, 2013). Scores for 1990-1996 are weighted to account for the proportion of migrants from countries with which Canada had bilateral social security agreements at the time (coding them as facing no residence requirement) using data on the inflow of immigrants from the OECD Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data. 

TP3Status requirement for access to tax-paid pension
1990-202380 (citizens, permanent residents)

While immigrants can use the years they spent in Canada on a temporary permit in determining their eligibility for tax-paid pension benefits, these programs are only accessible by those who are permanent residents or citizens at the time of retirement (George & George, 2013; Government of Canada, n.d.-b; Koning, 2019).

TP4Export possibilities, universal tax-paid pension
1990-20239-14 (with extra residence requirements, except for migrants from countries with which Canada has social security agreements)

Old Age Security can be exported anywhere in the world, but requires an additional 10 years of residence (so a total of 20 years). Again, however, years of residence in countries with which Canada has signed bilateral social security agreements can be counted in meeting this requirement (Government of Canada, n.d.-c; Koning, 2019). Therefore, the scores are weighted to account for the proportion of migrants from countries with which Canada has bilateral social security agreements (coding them as facing no additional residence requirement), using data on the stock of immigrants from the OECD Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.

Health care

HC1Residence requirements
1990-20232-4 (3 months in some provinces but not others)

Some provinces (British Columbia, New Brunswick, Ontario, and Quebec) have a three-month waiting period before new arrivals can access their health care systems, while others (Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island) do not (Caulford & Vali, 2006; Koning & Banting, 2013; Sivakumar, 2023). Alberta and Saskatchewan have only introduced such a three-month requirement recently, although Saskatchewan waives the waiting period in most cases for international arrivals (Alberta, n.d.; Cowan, 2014; Frattini, 2022; Haas, 2020; eHealth Saskatchewan, n.d.). The province of Ontario suspended the three-month waiting requirement in March of 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, and has not reinstated it yet (Ontario Ministry of Health, 2020). Scores on this indicator are weighted by the province of residence of arriving immigrants according to data from Statistics Canada.

HC2Status requirements
1990-202340 (citizens, permanent residents, some categories of temporary migrants)

Citizens, permanent residents, applicants for permanent residence whose application has been deemed admissible, and work permit holders are eligible for health care insurance. There is some provincial variation in the extent to which international students can access health care. Refugees and refugee claimants are covered by a separate federal health care program, the Interim Federal Health Program (Koning and Banting, 2013; Koning, 2019).

HC3APublic health care available to asylum seekers
1990-201217 (expanded coverage not provided to all native-born citizens)
2013-202325 (expanded coverage not provided to all native-born citizens for some, but basic services for others)

The Interim Federal Health Program, available to asylum seekers, can grant access to services that are not covered in all provincial health care packages, such as dental and ophthalmological care (such services only tend to be covered for native-born citizens who are recipients of social assistance). A 2012 reform, however, cut access to this program for some categories of active asylum seekers and all rejected refugee claimants (including those awaiting appeal decisions). And while many of the 2012 changes were reversed in 2015, the program is still decidedly less accessible now than it was before 2012 (Koning, 2019; Machery, Simonnot & Vanbiervliet, 2015; Merry et al. 2011). To recognize that some asylum seekers now receive expanded coverage while others can only access basic services, the scores on this indicator takes the average of those two scores for relevant years. 

HC3BPublic health care available to undocumented migrants
1990-202367 (emergency care, with user fees)

Undocumented migrants can access subsidized emergency care. For all other services, including perinatal care, they are required to foot the entire bill. There are some clinics and centers in Ontario and Quebec that provide essential care to undocumented migrants, but their availability is far from universal and their funding far from sufficient (Garasia et al. 2023; Sanchez et al., 2023).

HC4AAccessibility services, translation services
1990-202367 (occasionally available)

Since the 1970s, community health centers have been set up across the country that provide accessibility services for immigrants in health care, including translation services. These centers are government-funded but autonomous non-profit organizations, and therefore the range and availability of services differ dramatically across the country (Alliance for Healthier Communities, n.d.; BCACHC, n.d.).

HC4BAccessibility services, other attempts to increase uptake
1990-20230 (culturally sensitive care providers available in at least some instances)

Some community health centers and other health care providers have undertaken considerable effort to deliver culturally competent care. Such services are, however, far from guaranteed across the country ((McLaughlin, 2022; Zghal et al., 2021).

Contributory pension benefit

CP1Minimum contribution years
1990-20230 (none)

Throughout the period under study, anyone who has at least made one contribution to the contributory pension benefit, the Canada Pension Plan, has been eligible to draw from it at retirement age. There is no minimum number of contributions one has to make before becoming eligible (Government of Canada, n.d.-d; Koning, 2019; Social Security Administration, 2015).

CP2Status requirements
1990-20230 (all legal residents)

The only requirements for drawing from the contributory pension benefit are related to age and contribution history. There are no specific status requirements (Government of Canada, n.d.-d; Koning, 2019; Social Security Administration, 2015).

CP3Export possibilities
1990-20230 (export possible without restrictions)

The Canada Pension Plan does not come with residence requirements: eligible retirees can claim this benefit from anywhere in the world, without additional restrictions (Government of Canada, n.d.-e; Canada Pension Plan Act, 1985; Social Security Administration, 2015).

Contributory unemployment benefits

CU1Minimum contribution weeks
1990-19968 (8 weeks of full-time work)
1997-201623 (24 weeks of full-time work)
2017-202314 (on average 15 weeks of full-time work)

In order to first qualify for contributory unemployment benefits, 300 hours of work history used to be required of new labor market entrants. This requirement was increased to 910 hours as a result of a large-scale overhaul of the program in 1996 (Evans, 2002). As of July 2016, the government abolished the higher requirement for new entrants (Government of Canada, 2021). Since then, the requirement has been between 420 and 700 hours of work history, depending on the region of residence (the qualifying requirement is more demanding in economic regions with lower unemployment rates). The requirements in hours have been converted to requirements in weeks based on the assumption of 37.5 hours of work per week.

CU2Status requirements
1990-202350 (citizens, permanent residents, long-term work permit holders)

Everyone who is employed in Canada pays contributions to an unemployment insurance benefit. However, most temporary residents have a permit that is tied to a specific employer, which means that when they lose their job they lose their right of residence and cannot draw from unemployment beneifts. Similarly, refugee claimants are allowed to work on a special permit, but because it does not confer temporary residence status they would not be able to claim any unemployment benefits in case they were able to build up entitlement to it (Banting & Koning, 2017; Government of Canada, n.d.-f; Nakache & Kinoshita, 2010; Rodigruez-Garcia, 2012)

CU3Integration requirements
1990-20230 (no integration requirements)

There have never been integration requirements associated with drawing unemployment benefits in Canada.

CU4Export possibilities
1990-202380 (only possible for 1-2 weeks)

Recipients can only receive their benefits abroad for up to seven days in case of personal emergencies, or up to fourteen days in order to pursue an international job opportunity. Otherwise, the export of unemployment benefits is impossible (Employment Insurance Act, 1996; Government of Canada, n.d.-g).

Housing benefits

HB1Residence requirements
1990-20230 (no residence requirement)

In the province of Ontario, there are no length-of-residence requirements before someone becomes eligible for social housing or rent assistance (City of Toronto, n.d.-a; interview, CAN-01; OCASI, n.d.-a).

HB2Status requirements
1990-202360 (citizens, permanent residents, small number of temporary migrants)

Throughout the period under study, subsidized housing and rent assistance have only been available to citizens, permanent residents, and refugee claimants (City of Toronto, n.d.-b; OCASI, n.d.-a).

HB3Integration requirements
1990-20230 (no integration requirements)

There have never been any integration requirements to accessing housing benefits.

HB4Housing services for successful asylum claimants
1990-2023100 (no targeted services available)

While state-sponsored refugees can receive temporary accommodation upon arrival, assistance in finding permanent accommodation, and financial settlement support through the federal Resettlement Assistance Program, such services are not available for successful asylum claimants (Abbas, 2022; Coleman, 2020; Government of Canada, 2023, n.d.-h; UNHCR, 2022).

Social assistance                              

SA1Residence requirements
1990-20236-13 (none, except for family migrants)

Federal funding for provincial assistance programs prohibit any residence requirement to accessing social assistance. The only category of migrants who face some sort of residence requirement are family migrants, who are technically eligible for social assistance during the first 3-10 years in the country, but any benefits they take up during that period will have to be paid back by their sponsor, except in exceptional circumstances (Koning & Banting, 2013; Koning 2019). Score on this indicator is weighted to account for the proportion of sponsored family migrants among new permanent residents using data from Citizenship and Immigration Canada (until 2012) and Statistics Canada (since then), coding those migrants as facing a three-year residence requirement.

SA2Status requirements
1990-199180 (citizens and permanent residents)
1992-199660 (citizens, permanent residents, small number of temporary migrants)
1997-202340 (citizens, permanent residents, some categories of temporary migrants)

Social assistance in Ontario used to be exclusively available to citizens and permanent residents, until a 1991 reform extended eligibility to refugee claimants (Klassen and Buchanan, 2006). Since a large-scale welfare reform in 1996, applicants for permanent residence have been eligible as well (City of Toronto, n.d.-c; Ontario Works Act 1997).

SA3Consequences of welfare uptake
1990-20230 (no consequences)

Taking up social assistance has no consequences for residence status in Canada.

SA4Integration requirements
1990-20230 (no integration requirements)

There have never been explicit immigrant-targeted integration requirements associated with social assistance. Since the 1996 welfare reform, recipients are required to participate in reintegration measures, but this applies to native-born citizens as well (Klassen and Buchanan, 2006; Ontario, n.d.).

Active labor market policies

AL1Residence requirements
1990-19966 (in most cases tied to receipt of unemployment benefits, which requires a minimum work history)
1997-20235 (tied to receipt of benefit without residence requirement)

Canadian provinces offer a wide variety of active labor market programs, such as job counselling, training programs, and internships. For a long time, most of these programs were reserved for recipients of unemployment benefits, and therefore indirectly had at least a residence requirement equivalent to the minimum work history to qualify for those benefits. However, since 1996 many provinces have introduced social assistance programs that come with a range of active labor market policies as well, none of which come with residence requirements (Morden, 2016; Ontario, n.d.).

AL2Status requirements
1990-199660 (citizens, permanent residents, small number of temporary migrants)
1997-202340 (citizens, permanent residents, some categories of temporary migrants)

Based on the information above [see AL1], the scores on this indicator follow the status requirements for unemployment benefits until 1996, and for social assistance thereafter.

AL3AAvailability of language programs
1990-199243 (available at least for all immigrants required to take them)
1993-202329 (available for all permanent residents and some temporary residents)

In 1974, the federal government launched the Canadian Jobs Strategy, a program designed to help economic migrants succeed on the labor market, including by offering them language training (Ricento et al. 2008). In 1992, this program was replaced by Language Instruction for Newcomers, which was available to all permanent residents and protected people (Government of Canada, n.d.-i; Rodriguez-Garcia, 2012).

AL3BPublic funding of language programs
1990-20230 (fully funded)

Language training is fully funded for eligible newcomers (Government of Canada, n.d.-i).

AL4AAvailability of employment assistance
1990-202317 (available to all immigrants intending to become permanent resident)

Since at least 1974, the federal government has funded employment assistance services specifically targeted at immigrants. The services are delivered primarily by not-for-profit organizations and local partners. While there is some discretion for these service providers, the services are intended exclusively for permanent residents and protected people (Biles, 2008; Koning, 2019).

AL4BNature of employment assistance
1990-200360 (assistance with finding employment)
2004-202340 (assistance with credential recognition)

Employment assistance for immigrants long consisted primarily of orientation services, referrals, counseling, job search training, and job application assistance (Biles, 2008). Since the founding of the Foreign Credential Recognition Program in 2003, the federal government has also undertaken more active efforts to help immigrants in seeing recognition for their foreign qualifications (Girard and Bauder, 2007; Koning, 2019).

Works cited